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Bibliographical database
This database enlists a selection of publications pertaining to animal health in the Caribbean. Articles are classified by theme and are listed in chronological order.
If you wish to add an article to this database, you can do it directly on the website (you will first need to create an account, with login and password, and to contact the webmaster for him to give you rights to add references) or contact us at caribinfo@caribvet.net
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Amblyomma | ||
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| "Successful and currently ongoing parasite eradication programs" | ||
| Bowman, D.D. | 2006 | Vet Parasitol. 2006 Jul 31;139(4):293-307 |
| The eradication of parasitic diseases is not a new concept. The most successful programs of parasite eradication have occurred with species of veterinary importance. The first such program, the eradication of Texas Cattle Fever from the United States, is one of the great success stories of disease eradication. The American screwworm eradication program is ongoing and is serving as a guiding impetus for many of the ongoing or proposed vector eradication schemes around the world. The success of these programs prompted similar successful operations in human health. Although they once led the way, veterinary parasitologists have taken second place in eradication planning. The only three parasitic diseases of veterinary importance that have been targets of recent eradication programs are Hypoderma species in Great Britain and Europe, Cochliomyia hominivorax after its introduction into Libya from the Americas, and Echinococcus granulosus in Tasmania, Australia. There is also work on the eradication of the tick, Amblyomma variegatum, from the Caribbean Islands. Some animal diseases are targeted under the auspices of the human eradication programs, most notably the eradication of the tsetse fly from parts or all of Africa. This paper reviews some of the past or ongoing successful eradication programs and presents a brief summary of the history of the programs, the methods used or planned, and potential controversies surrounding their success and implementation. | ||
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| "Rickettsia africae in the West Indies." | ||
| Kelly, P. J. | 2006 | Emerg Infect Dis 12(2): 224-6. |
| Rickettsia africae is the agent of African tick-bite fever, a mild but common disease of local persons and tourists in Africa. The major vector of this spotted fever group rickettsia is most likely Amblyomma variegatum, the tropical bont tick, which has become widely distributed through the West Indies in the last 30 years. This report reviews all available information on R. africae in the West Indies. | ||
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| "Rickettsia africae, the agent of African tick-bite fever: an emerging pathogen in the West Indies and Reunion Island (Indian Ocean)." | ||
| Parola, P. and N. Barre | 2004 | Bull Soc Pathol Exot 97(3): 193-8. |
| Rickettsia africae is the agent of African tick bite fever, an emerging disease transmitted by Amblyomma ticks in sub-Saharan Africa. In 1998, we reported the first documented case of R. africae in the New World, in a patient who had returned from Guadeloupe. In order to confirm the presence of R. africae in the West Indies, entomologic surveys were conducted from 1999 to 2003 to collect Amblyomma, which are considered as potential vectors and reservoirs of the bacteria. Ticks were used as epidemiological tools to detect R. africae by molecular tools and/or cultivate the bacteria in shell-vial cell culture. This paper summarizes the results obtained in the West Indies. R. africae was detected and isolated for the first time in Guadeloupe, and then detected by molecular tools in Martinique and St-Kitts and Nevis. These last results confirm our first hypotheses--that is R. africae is prevalent on all the Caribbean islands where A. variegatum ticks have been introduced from Africa in the 18th and 19th centuries. We also present the results of a study conducted on the Reunion Island, a French island in the Indian Ocean. For the first time there, R. africae was detected in A. variegatum ticks, which were probably introduced from the African mainland or Madagascar with the human colonization during the 17th century Thus, clinicians should be aware that patient presenting in the West Indies or on Reunion Island (or after a trip over there) with fever, eschar (often multiple), regional lymphadenopathy and a rash, might be infected by R. africae. | ||
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| "The Caribbean Amblyomma Program: some ecologic factors affecting its success." | ||
| Pegram, R., L. Indar, et al. | 2004 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 1026: 302-11. |
| The Caribbean Amblyomma Program has been operational for 8 years. However, owing to funding availability, some islands did not commence eradication activities until late 1997. During the past 2 years, 6 of the 9 islands (St. Kitts, St. Lucia, Anguilla, Montserrat, Barbados, and Dominica) under the program have attained the status of provisional freedom from the tropical bont tick (TBT). There are several administrative and technical reasons why the attainment of the program goals took longer than originally anticipated. This paper examines some of the ecologic factors that necessitated the prolongation of the treatment period and the recrudescence of TBT infestation in some islands. The introduction and subsequent spread of the cattle egret, Bulbucus ibis, in the 1960s and 1970s was most likely closely associated with the dissemination of the TBT in the region. At the national or island level, variations in land use are believed to have had a major impact on the eradication efforts in the different islands. Two islands, Antigua and Nevis, both opted out of sugar production several decades ago for economic reasons. Unfortunately, however, land from former sugar estates was not developed for other agricultural purposes and it became "unimproved free-grazing" areas for livestock. Thus, in both Antigua and Nevis, large numbers of livestock tend to become feral or free-ranging, making compliance with the mandatory treatment schedules impossible. In contrast, St. Lucia has large tracts of land allocated to banana plantations and St. Kitts to sugar plantations. Thus, feral or free-ranging livestock were rarely a problem in these islands. These differences in land use management are compared and discussed in relation to their perceived profound impact on TBT eradication efforts in the region. | ||
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| "A survey for spotted fever group rickettsiae and ehrlichiae in Amblyomma variegatum from St. Kitts and Nevis." | ||
| Kelly, P. J., P. E. Fournier, et al. | 2003 | Am J Trop Med Hyg 69(1): 58-9. |
| Eighty-nine Amblyomma variegatum ticks were collected from the islands of St. Kitts and Nevis in the Caribbean and preserved in 70% ethanol or local rum. After being washed in sterile water, their DNA was extracted and analyzed by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for DNA of spotted fever group rickettsiae and ehrlichiae. None of the tested ticks was positive in a PCR assay using the primers 16S EHRD and 16S EHRR for the 16S rRNA gene of Ehrlichia spp.. Forty-one percent of the A. variegatum (36 of 89 of which 34 [47%] of 72 were adult males, 2 (13%) of 16 were adult females, and 0 (0%) of 1 were nymphs) were positive in a PCR assay using the primer pair 190-70 and 190-701 for the outer membrane protein A (ompA) gene of spotted fever group rickettsiae. All PCR amplification products obtained had 100% sequence homology with Rickettsia africae, the agent of African tick-bite fever. | ||
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| "Increasing risks of introduction of heartwater into the American mainland associated with animal movements." | ||
| Burridge, M. J., L. A. Simmons, et al. | 2002 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 969: 269-74. |
| Opportunities to introduce heartwater onto the American mainland through animal movements include importation from Africa of tick-infested reptiles and of subclinically infected wild ungulates and importation of livestock from islands in the Caribbean infested with Amblyomma variegatum ticks. Measures to control importation of heartwater vectors on reptiles include importation bans of infested species, treatment of imported reptiles, and eradication of established infestations on the American mainland. Measures to control importation of infected wildlife must focus on improved methods, such as the PCR assay, of screening animals to prevent the entry of carriers of Cowdria ruminantium. Measures to control importation of infected animals from the Caribbean must be based on knowledge of the islands that are infected with C. ruminantium so that the risk of dissemination of heartwater can be established. | ||
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| "Progress towards the eradication of Amblyomma variegatum from the Caribbean." | ||
| Pegram, R. G. and C. Eddy | 2002 | Exp Appl Acarol 28(1-4): 273-81. |
| Progress in the Caribbean Amblyomma Program (CAP) is reviewed since its inception in 1995 when regional eradication activities for Amblyomma variegatum ticks were initiated using Bayticol pour-on. Technical achievements in the various islands were slow initially, and showed a wide diversity in attaining eradication targets. St. Kitts, considered as a model program. eliminated the tropical Bont tick (TBT) from most of the island in less than 3 years. However, the elimination of very low numbers of residual adult TBT that persisted in three 'hot-spots' took another 3 years. A similar problem was faced in St. Lucia, although the approach there was to cull the wild cattle in the last remaining hot-spot. Both islands were certified as 'Provisionally free from TBT' in November 2001. In 2002, Anguilla and Montserrat attained the same status, and Barbados and Dominica also qualify for certification. Certification is based on strict, three-monthly, surveillance criteria: essentially, two successive TBT-free surveillance rounds on a statistically acceptable sample of the livestock population. Within the responsibility of the CAP, three islands remain TBT-infested, Antigua, Nevis, and St. Martin/St. Maarten. Nevis is of concern because it has been operational since late 1995, and appears unable to resolve the problem of treating stray small ruminants. Current funding should be adequate to complete eradication on Nevis and in St. Martin/St. Maarten. The major outstanding challenge is Antigua. In comparison to other islands they have the largest number of livestock, and have much larger populations than originally reported: sheep and goats are 4-5-fold higher, and cattle are 1.35-fold higher. The cost for Bayticol is, therefore, almost double and an additional US dollars 1.5 million is required for that commodity alone. | ||
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| "Eradication of the tropical bont tick in the Caribbean: is the Caribbean amblyomma program in a crisis?" | ||
| Pegram, R. G., E. F. Gersabeck, et al. | 2002 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 969: 297-305. |
| The progress and problems in the Caribbean Amblyomma Program (CAP) are reviewed since its inception in 1995. During 1998, there were funding and administrative management problems. USDA resolved the acute funding crisis, and after three years of negotiation, the CAP has now secured an additional euro 1.5 million from the European Community. Changes in administration in 1998 included the withdrawal of IICA from the program, and the transition during the decentralization of administrative and financial management from FAO headquarters to the Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, based in Chile. A general overview of technical progress and one case study, St. Kitts, is presented. One major concern that emerged during 2000 is that the elimination of the small remaining tropical bont tick (TBT) "hot spots" in both St. Kitts and St. Lucia remained elusive. Why is this so? Egrets? Alternative residual hosts? Or is it fatigue in both technical and administrative management functions? Of even greater concern is the finding of two, apparently new, foci in St. Croix (USVI) in the north and St. Vincent in the south. A critical overview of the program has identified one major remaining constraint-an appropriate management support function at both regional and, in some countries, at the national level. A proposal for a revised management strategy, coupled with the identification of a future strategy to succeed the CAP, namely a Caribbean Animal Resources Management (CARM) Program. | ||
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| "Babesiosis and heartwater: threats without boundaries." | ||
| Wagner, G. G., P. Holman, et al. | 2002 | Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 18(3): 417-30, vi-vii. |
| Suppose one of your clients from southern Florida starts talking about cattle egrets while you are vaccinating her cat. It seems she found a nearly dead egret near the cattle pen a few days ago, picked it up, and noticed a number of what looked like small ticks on the legs. Or, suppose you are called out to a small dairy in central Texas to look at some cows that are feverish and anemic. The first animal you examine has a few brown ticks attached just under the tail. Finally, perhaps you are looking at a lame tortoise for a reptile fancier, a new client, and find a large, colorful tick on a hind leg, well up under the shell. Ring any bells? Egrets are great hosts for the immature stages of Amblyomma ticks and have been captured and marked in the eastern Caribbean, then recaptured in the Florida Keys. Those cattle ticks in Texas might be acaricide-resistant Boophilus ticks that originated in Mexico. The Amblyomma tick on the tortoise could well have "hitch-hiked" all the way from South Africa. By now you remember that both Amblyomma and Boophilus ticks are efficient vectors of two tickborne diseases in this hemisphere, heartwater (in the case of Amblyomma) and babesiosis (transmitted by Boophilus ticks). Both of these diseases are exotic to the United States, and because our livestock are considered to be totally susceptible, an introduced infection could result in high initial death losses (approximately 70%); thus, both the ticks and the diseases pose immediate threats to the health and economic security of United States animal industries. Most importantly, you, whether as a small animal or large animal practitioner, are the first line of defense against such exotic diseases and their vectors. | ||
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| "Tropical bont tick eradication campaign in the French Antilles. Current status." | ||
| Barre, N., E. Camus, et al. | 2001 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 791: 64-76. |
| The Amblyomma variegatum eradication campaign was officially started in April 1994 in Martinique and in Guadeloupe, including its dependencies of Marie Galante, Desirade and St Martin. A budget of $10.5 and $5.9 million for Guadeloupe and Martinique, respectively, was initially (1991) calculated and considered necessary to achieve the program. However, EEC, the most important donor, estimated that 75% only of this proposal was acceptable, on which it agrees to support a maximum of 50%. The balance had to be provided by French government, local political institutions, and animal owners. The current budget actualized in 1995 by veterinary authorities of Martinique and Guadeloupe is $7,200,000 and $9,900,000 respectively. The program will take 5 years: preparation (1 year), acaricide application (3 years), surveillance (1 year). During this first year, a pilot committee was established, and a project leader was designated for each island. Efforts were essentially oriented to organize the program in the field and to obtain funds from French and local counterparts. Funds allowed the recruitment and training of 19 new agents in Guadeloupe and 9 in Martinique, in addition to personnel already involved in the tick control program. Census of animal owners and identification of cattle started or were developed. Tenders were invited to provide vehicles and acaricides. For the latter, choices were made considering the prices and efficacy as well as funds available. Due to a limited budget and cost of pour-on formulations, pour-on acaricides will be used on a maximum of 30% of animals only. In order to investigate animal owners' reticences and the most appropriate media channels to establish a communication and a training program, a survey was conducted in Guadeloupe on a sample of 301 animal owners. The results are presented. In order to strengthen the chances of success of the campaign in the French islands, it is expected that a similar program will take place soon in infested neighboring islands. | ||
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| "Past and present national tick control programs. Why they succeed or fail." | ||
| Pegram, R. G., D. D. Wilson, et al. | 2000 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 916: 546-54. |
| The historical reasons for the introduction of tick control during the nineteenth century are reviewed. Background and concepts for the choice between long-term tick control and tick eradication are compared. Case studies of large-scale tick control or eradication programs in Africa, Australia, the United States, and the Caribbean are used to highlight successes and failures. The main reasons for lack of sustainability, or failure, of programs are discussed. These include the economic constraints that were faced in several African countries, or technical shortcomings such as were perceived as a major problem in Puerto Rico. The successes are generally associated with enforcement of appropriate legislation and good management, such as occurred in Zimbabwe. These case studies are analyzed to identify features that may assist in the implementation of the ongoing tropical bont tick eradication program in the Caribbean. The paper concludes with some practical suggestions for the future, and the need to reassess the economics of control and the potential additional animal health benefits derived from tick control programs. | ||
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| "Eradication and surveillance of the tropical bont tick in the Caribbean. An international approach." | ||
| Pegram, R. G., J. W. Hansen, et al. | 2000 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 916: 179-85. |
| The Caribbean Amblyomma program (CAP) is a multidonor funded effort involving several technical organizations and national governments in the eradication of the tropical bont tick. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is the lead technical agency, providing both technical and administrative support to the CAP Regional Coordination Unit (RCU) based in Barbados. All collaborating agencies, donors, and national representatives are members of the Amblyomma Program Council (APC), the overall governing body of the CAP. In addition to FAO, the other organizations involved are the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), the European Union (EU), the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Several agencies (EU, FAO, IFAD, and USDA) are also major donors. The CAP cooperates with the complementary Plan POSEIDOM Veterinaire Program in the French West Indies. The University of the West Indies (UWI), the International Institute for Biological Control (IIBC), and the Departement d'Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux (EM-VT) in Guadeloupe are other collaborators. | ||
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| "Eradication and surveillance of the tropical bont tick in the Caribbean. An international approach." | ||
| Pegram, R. G., J. W. Hansen, et al. | 2000 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 916: 179-85. |
| The Caribbean Amblyomma program (CAP) is a multidonor funded effort involving several technical organizations and national governments in the eradication of the tropical bont tick. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is the lead technical agency, providing both technical and administrative support to the CAP Regional Coordination Unit (RCU) based in Barbados. All collaborating agencies, donors, and national representatives are members of the Amblyomma Program Council (APC), the overall governing body of the CAP. In addition to FAO, the other organizations involved are the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), the European Union (EU), the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Several agencies (EU, FAO, IFAD, and USDA) are also major donors. The CAP cooperates with the complementary Plan POSEIDOM Veterinaire Program in the French West Indies. The University of the West Indies (UWI), the International Institute for Biological Control (IIBC), and the Departement d'Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux (EM-VT) in Guadeloupe are other collaborators. | ||
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| "Ticks and tick-borne disease systems in space and from space." | ||
| Randolph, S. E. | 2000 | Adv Parasitol 47: 217-43. |
| Analyses within geographical information systems (GISs) indicate that small- and large-scale ranges of hard tick species (Ixodidae) are determined more by climate and vegetation than by host-related factors. Spatial distributions of ticks may therefore be analysed by statistical methods that seek correlations between known tick presence/absence and ground- or remotely-sensed (RS) environmental factors. In this way, local habitats of Amblyomma variegatum in the Caribbean and Ixodes ricinus in Europe have been mapped using Landsat RS imagery, while regional and continental distributions of African and temperate tick species have been predicted using multi-temporal information from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (NOAA-AVHRR) imagery. These studies illustrate ways of maximizing statistical accuracy, whose interpretation is then discussed in a biological framework. Methods such as discriminant analysis are biologically transparent and interpretable, while others, such as logistic regression and tree-based classifications, are less so. Furthermore, the most consistently significant variable for predicting tick distributions, the RS Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), has a sound biological basis in that it is related to moisture availability to free-living ticks and correlated with tick mortality rates. The development of biological process-based models for predicting the spatial dynamics of ticks is a top priority, especially as the risk of tick-borne infections is commonly related not simply to the vector's density, but to its seasonal population dynamics. Nevertheless, using statistical pattern-matching, the combination of RS temperature indices and NDVI successfully predicts certain temporal features essential for the transmission of tick-borne encephalitis virus, which translate into a spatial pattern of disease foci on a continental scale. | ||
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| "Tropical bont tick (Amblyomma variegatum) eradication in the Caribbean. The St. Kitts experience." | ||
| St Clair Phillip, K. | 2000 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 916: 320-5. |
| The tropical bont tick (TBT) was first identified in St. Kitts in 1978. Initially, infestation was observed on cattle that developed a severe dermatitis. Over a period of seven years, the TBT spread to most areas of the island, affecting cattle, sheep, and goats. The ruminant livestock population declined from, 6,000, 9,000, and 7,000 cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively, in 1984 to an estimated 400, 800, and 1,000, cattle, sheep, and goats in 1990. A project to control the tropical bont tick on St. Kitts was implemented in 1983. This effort was based on the use of plunge dips located in communal grazing areas. In October of 1995, the Caribbean Amblyomma Programme was initiated on St. Kitts to eradicate the TBT from the Caribbean. In 1996, there were 416 animal owners with 2,000, 4,300, and 4,000 cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively. Cases of dermatophilosis, declined from 657 in 1995 to 153 in 1996. During the period 1997 to 1998 treatment with Flumethrin continued. The Department of Agriculture initiated activities for treatment compliance, monitoring, and TBT surveillance. The animal population increased to 3,000, 6,000, and 4,500 cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively, and with 810 animal owners participating. The number of cases of dermatophilosis declined to 42. In 1998, the TBT was confined to three foci. The remainder of the island was declared provisionally tick free. | ||
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| "Tick-borne rickettiosis in Guadeloupe, the French West Indies: isolation of Rickettsia africae from Amblyomma variegatum ticks and serosurvey in humans, cattle, and goats." | ||
| Parola, P., G. Vestris, et al. | 1999 | Am J Trop Med Hyg 60(6): 888-93. |
| Twenty-seven rickettsiae were isolated and/or detected from 100 Amblyomma variegatum ticks collected on Guadeloupe in the French West Indies. In this study, the polymerase chain reaction procedure appeared to be more sensitive in detecting rickettsiae in ticks than the shell-vial technique. Sequencing a portion of the outer membrane protein A-encoding gene showed that these rickettsiae appeared to be identical to Rickettsia africae, a member of the spotted fever group rickettsiae recently described as an agent of African tick-bite fever occurring in sub-Sahelian Africa. A high seroprevalence of antibodies to R. africae was demonstrated among mammals, particularly humans, cattle, and goats. These results and a recently reported case of an infection due to R. africae on Guadeloupe demonstrate that R. africae is present on this island. Although this disease has been underdiagnosed there, it may be frequent and may exist on other Caribbean islands where A. variegatum has propagated dramatically over recent years. | ||
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| "A review of heartwater and the threat of introduction of Cowdria ruminantium and Amblyomma spp. ticks to the American mainland." | ||
| Deem, S. L. | 1998 | J Zoo Wildl Med 29(2): 109-13. |
| Heartwater, caused by the rickettsial agent Cowdria ruminantium, is one of the most devastating livestock diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. In addition to domestic cattle, sheep, and goats, a variety of nondomestic species can acquire subclinical and clinical infections. Recent epidemiologic findings that demonstrate a long-term host carrier state in domestic and wild ruminants, intrastadial transmission by the tick vectors (Amblyomma spp.), vertical transmission of the agent from cows to their calves, and the presence of both C. ruminantium and Amblyomma variegatum in the Caribbean suggest that the introduction of this exotic disease to the American mainland is a significant threat. Veterinarians working with wildlife should be familiar with this disease and should follow appropriate preventive measures to minimize the risk of infection in captive and wild populations of ruminants. | ||
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| "Repeatability of the level of infestation by Amblyomma variegatum ticks on Creole cattle." | ||
| Naves, M., N. Barre, et al. | 1998 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 849: 391-4. |
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| "The CARICOM/FAO/IICA Caribbean Amblyomma Program." | ||
| Pegram, R. G., J. J. De Castro, et al. | 1998 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 849: 343-8. |
| The objective of the Caribbean Amblyomma Program is to eradicate the tropical bont tick (TBT), Amblyomma variegatum, from the Caribbean. Field activities directed to eradication of the TBT were initiated in May 1995 commencing in northern Caribbean islands. Plans have been finalized for the remaining islands to the south to start eradication activities in early 1997. The components of the program include tick control and surveillance, adaptive research, training, communications, and extension. Despite uncertain financial support, substantial progress has been made so far with strong participation by farmers and livestock owners who have been made responsible for the compulsory treatment of all ruminant livestock. | ||
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| "Successes and failures in the tropical bont tick eradication campaigns in the French antilles." | ||
| Rose-Rosette, F., N. Barre, et al. | 1998 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 849: 349-54. |
| The Amblyomma variegatum eradication campaigns, based on three phases and a 5-year program, as in other islands of the Caribbean, started in the French Antilles in April 1994 with various financial inputs. The progress of the campaigns in the two islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique contrast sharply. Owing to a shortage and inadequacy of results with regard to the initial objectives, particularly in organization, communication efforts, cattle identification, and application of acaricides on livestock, the European Community which was the most important donor, did not support the Guadeloupean program in 1996 and 1997. This induced a deep crisis in the local sanitary organization, which has the responsibility for the execution of the project, and the almost total interruption of acaricide treatments in Guadeloupe and its dependencies (Marie-Galante, St Martin, Desirade). In Martinique on the contrary, a well-defined organization, communication strategy, and personnel training effort resulted in a generalized census of livestock owners. Identification of cattle increased dramatically in number and the systematic treatment of livestock started in satisfying conditions. It is too early to anticipate on the final result of the campaign, but it is clear that a longer period of time than previously planned, will be necessary to achieve the program. If this prolongation is accepted, it may allow Guadeloupe to take part again in the campaign, a condition absolutely necessary for its regional success. | ||
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| "Factors of variation of Amblyomma variegatum infestation on Creole cattle in Guadeloupe." | ||
| Naves, M., N. Barre, et al. | 1996 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 791: 445-51. |
| The level of infestation of "Creole" beef cattle of Guadeloupe by the tick Amblyomma variegatum was recorded during a long-term survey in an experimental farm: 61 steers and 83 cows were distributed in different lots according to sex and management. They grazed continuously either on irrigated Digitaria decumbens pastures or on dry native savannahs. Tick numbers as well as animal weights were registered monthly. Climatic data were also recorded. Different acaricide treatments were tested during the survey. But in order to minimize their effect in the data analysis, only tick counts over an average of 5 adult ticks per cattle were taken into account. The level of infestation is analyzed with respect to environmental factors (season, management) and individual factors (sex, weight, physiological stage, genetic effect). The effects of these factors are discussed with regard to alternative tick-control methods, such as the selection of resistant hosts. | ||
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| "Development of a computer model of the population dynamics of Amblyomma variegatum and simulations of eradication strategies for use in the Caribbean." | ||
| Popham, T. W., G. I. Garris, et al. | 1996 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 791: 452-65. |
| Control or eradication efforts should cover wide areas because of long-range migration potential of immature ticks attached to birds, such as cattle egrets. Careful follow-up inspections are also imperative. Simulation 1 shows how rapidly the population numbers may expand from small numbers, either introduced or missed. Simulation 4 indicates extending the treatment cycle beyond the residual effectiveness of the acaricide to save labor or funds would be false economy. The result could be to maintain the tick population indefinitely, with an accompanying increase in long-term control costs. Simulations 2 and 3 indicate that eradication is possible if response is prompt and the treatment cycle is less than the period of residual effectiveness of the acaricide used. | ||
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| "Amblyomma tick feeding in relation to host health." | ||
| Walker, A. R. | 1996 | Trop Anim Health Prod 28(2 Suppl): 26S-28S. |
| The tick Amblyomma variegatum has been shown by field and controlled laboratory experiments to have a direct causal relationship with severe clinical dermatophilosis. The tick does not transmit the pathogen in the usual sense, either biologically or mechanically. The tick suppresses the immune system of the host, for unknown reasons, and this appears to enable the existing dermatophilosis to become a severe disease. There are other factors involved with the progression of dermatophilosis to clinical disease, such as malnutrition. However, the role of ticks is so distinct that it is likely that appropriate tick control using acaricide, when combined with other measures to improve the husbandry of the cattle, will reduce the incidence and severity of dermatophilosis. | ||
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| "Propagation of the tick Amblyomma variegatum in the Caribbean." | ||
| Barre, N., G. Garris, et al. | 1995 | Rev Sci Tech 14(3): 841-55. |
| The tropical bont tick, Amblyomma variegatum, is an African tick species which infests livestock and wildlife. It was probably introduced in the central eastern islands of the Caribbean during the 18th or 19th century, with cattle shipped from Senegal. In Africa and the Caribbean, this tick is a vector of heartwater (a rickettsial disease of ruminants) and is associated with acute dermatophilosis (a bacterial skin disease of animals). Until 1948, only Guadeloupe and the neighbouring islands of Marie Galante and Antigua were infested with this tick species. Following increased agricultural commerce between Guadeloupe and Martinique, the latter became infested in 1948. Between 1967 (when the tick was identified in St Croix) and 1988 (when a male tick was reported in St Vincent), fourteen new islands were reached by this tick. Most of the dissemination of the tick to new islands cannot be explained by legal or illegal movements of livestock. Recently-determined circumstantial evidence strongly links the increase in populations of the cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), a migrating bird established in the Caribbean circa 1960, with increased colonisation of new islands by A. variegatum. Considering the wide range of areas currently occupied by this bird species in the Greater Antilles and on the American mainland, there is a high probability that the tick will also expand its range and invade new areas. Eradication of A. variegatum from the Caribbean and thus from the western hemisphere, and the strengthening of measures to prevent inter-island movements of livestock, would be the only effective means of preventing this threat. | ||
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| "Vector situation of tick-borne diseases in the Caribbean Islands." | ||
| Camus, E. and N. Barre | 1995 | Vet Parasitol 57(1-3): 167-76. |
| The most important ticks transmitting diseases to ruminants in the Caribbean islands are: Amblyomma variegatum, vector of cowdriosis and associated with acute dermatophilosis; Amblyomma cajennense, potential vector of cowdriosis; Boophilus microplus, vector of babesiosis and anaplasmosis. At the present time, Amblyomma variegatum is widespread in the Lesser Antilles from Barbados to Puerto Rico. The intensity of the tick control program varies in the different islands and the tick infestation in each island ranges from limited foci to widespread infestations. The vector situation appeared stable since 1988 in the Lesser Antilles but the outbreak in 1992 in Puerto Rico emphasized the risk of spread to other islands and to the American mainland, particularly with cattle egrets. Cowdriosis remains apparently limited to Guadeloupe and Antigua. Amblyomma cajennense, experimental vector of cowdriosis, is present in Cuba, Jamaica and Trinidad but also in most American countries. Boophilus microplus is widespread throughout the Caribbean. Its presence and importance are often indirectly estimated by the clinical and serological diagnosis of babesiosis and anaplasmosis. There is no correlation between the intensity of Amblyomma variegatum control in each island of the Lesser Antilles and the effect on the Boophilus microplus population measured by the seroprevalence to babesiosis and anaplasmosis, but within the island of Martinique a regular Amblyomma variegatum control decreases the seroprevalences to babesiosis and anaplasmosis. | ||
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| "Wildlife as hosts for ticks (Acari) in Antigua, West Indies." | ||
| Corn, J. L., D. M. Kavanaugh, et al. | 1994 | J Med Entomol 31(1): 57-61. |
| A survey was conducted to determine the status of wild mammals and birds as hosts for Amblyomma variegatum (F.) and other tick species in Antigua. Surveys of wild mammals and birds were conducted periodically from September 1988 through May 1991. Wild mammals surveyed included the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus Hodgson), Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus Berkenhout), and house mouse (Mus musculus L.), but only mongooses were surveyed intensively. Larvae and nymphs of A. variegatum, larvae of Boophilus microplus (Canestrini), and larvae of Ornithodoros puertoricensis (Fox) were recovered. The mean prevalences of infestation of mongooses by A. variegatum larvae and nymphs were 4.7 and 1.3%, respectively; maximums were 16.1 and 5.0%, respectively. The mean prevalence of infestation of mongooses by B. microplus was 3.2%. O. puertoricensis is reported from Antigua for the first time. The mean prevalence of infestation of mongooses by O. puertoricensis larvae was 41.2%, but seasonal prevalences ranged from 27.8 to 55.0%. Of 610 birds representing 16 species, three Carib grackles (Quiscalus lugubris Swainson) were each infested with one larva of A. variegatum. | ||
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| "Acaricides for eradication of the tick Amblyomma variegatum in the Caribbean." | ||
| Barre, N., G. Garris, et al. | 1993 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 46(1-2): 349-54. |
| The success of an eradication campaign against the tropical bont tick in the Caribbean imposes the use of active acaricide compounds, if possible with residual activity, easy to apply and requiring few or no accessible water supplies and expensive application equipment. Tests of in vitro susceptibility of tick strains from Puerto Rico and Guadeloupe as well as observations of the impact of the current tick control campaigns conducted in some Caribbean islands, seem to indicate that there is no problem of resistance to acaricides. Pyrethroid acaricides have an advantage since they are active at very low concentration levels and have a low toxicity for mammals and to the environment. Some of them are in a pour-on formulation which allows for rapid application and complete coverage of the whole body of the animal. A withdrawal period is not necessary. However, improvements must be found to facilitate the application onto the back of cattle that, for the majority in the Caribbean, are tethered and not perfectly restrained. A spot-on application method with a drench gun seems more adapted to tethered animals than the pour-on. For small ruminants and dogs but also for cattle, slow release devices impregnated with acaricides may be useful in reducing the frequency of animal treatments. However, experiments on goats with collars impregnated with flumethrin indicate an efficiency of less than 55 days, insufficient to justify their use on a large scale in an eradication program. | ||
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| "Eradication of a new focus of Amblyomma variegatum in Puerto Rico." | ||
| Bokma, B. H. and J. L. Shaw | 1993 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 46(1-2): 355-8. |
| In May 1992 an infestation with the tropical bont tick appeared in a small dairy heifer replacement herd in Camuy, Puerto Rico, a completely new site located near Puerto Rico's northwest coast. This finding occurred after some three years of no infestation in either Puerto Rico or the U.S. Virgin Islands and is not suspected of being associated with any previous infestations. The methods used to eradicate this tick include spray treatment at a two-week interval of all domestic livestock, with amitraz at 0.025% and permethrin at 0.055%. Dogs and chickens are also inspected. Owners are encouraged to reduce numbers of these species. All livestock on adjoining farms are inspected and treated on a frequent basis. There has been no evidence of any spread and the infestation is expected to be eliminated within 18 months. | ||
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| "Potential role of cattle egrets, Bubulcus ibis (Ciconiformes: Ardeidae), in the dissemination of Amblyomma variegatum (Acari: Ixodidae) in the eastern Caribbean." | ||
| Corn, J. L., N. Barre, et al. | 1993 | J Med Entomol 30(6): 1029-37. |
| The potential role of cattle egrets, Bubulcus ibis (L.), in the dissemination of Amblyomma variegatum (F.) in the eastern Caribbean was evaluated. The status of cattle egrets as hosts for A. variegatum in Antigua was determined during seven survey periods between September 1988 and May 1991. The mean prevalences of infestation by larvae and nymphs were 2.3 and 0.5%, respectively. The mean intensity and relative density of infestation by larvae were 8.8 (SD = 9.80) and 0.2 (SD = 0.28), respectively. Cattle egrets examined in Guadeloupe during February-March 1991 were not infested but 5.9% were infested by larvae during June-July 1991. Interisland movement of cattle egrets was evaluated relative to emigration of birds captured and marked in Antigua and Guadeloupe. During this aspect of the study, 1,129 cattle egrets were captured, marked, and released. Of 195 sighting reports received, 56 were determined to be independent sightings. Emigration of cattle egrets included movement of birds marked in Antigua or Guadeloupe to 14 Caribbean islands and the Florida Keys. Interisland movement occurred in each of the discrete observation periods during the 3-yr study period. The rate of emigration per period ranged from 1.2 to 12.9%. That cattle egrets served as hosts for immature A. variegatum in the eastern Caribbean and moved between islands in the region demonstrates that these birds could serve as disseminators of the tick. Estimates of the numbers of infested cattle egrets emigrating from Antigua and Guadeloupe ranged from 0 to 0.24% of the current populations. | ||
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| "Progress towards a program for the eradication of Amblyomma variegatum from the Caribbean." | ||
| Garris, G. I., N. Barre, et al. | 1993 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 46(1-2): 359-62. |
| Amblyomma variegatum (Fabricius), the tropical bont tick, is now widely distributed in the Caribbean. Eighteen islands countries are now or were recently infested with the tick. To stop the spread of this tick to other non-infested islands and to the mainland areas of South, Central and North America, a regional eradication program has been proposed and endorsed by the respective governments on each of the Amblyomma variegatum infested islands, including the French government and CARICOM member and associate member countries. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) was requested by CARICOM, on behalf of member and associate member governments to: develop eradication proposals; assist CARICOM member countries to maintain existing Amblyomma tick control programs; advise and assist with the drafting of legislation required for implementation of an eradication program; assist in the identification of funds to implement the eradication program and, if funding was obtained, coordinate the eradication campaign against this tick on all infested islands. The current distribution of the tick and the status of the proposed eradication program in the Caribbean are discussed. | ||
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| "An attempt to correlate cattle breed origins and diseases associated with or transmitted by the tick Amblyomma variegatum in the French West Indies." | ||
| Maillard, J. C., S. J. Kemp, et al. | 1993 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 46(1-2): 283-90. |
| By using biological data and historical research, we have tried to explain the difference between resistance and susceptibility to the diseases transmitted (cowdriosis) or associated (dermatophilosis) with the tick Amblyomma variegatum, in two cattle breeds of the French West Indies: the Creole crossbred cattle of Guadeloupe and the Brahman zebu cattle of Martinique. Have been studied the polymorphisms of 5 independent genetic systems (erythrocytic haemoglobin, serum albumin and transferrin, the class I region of the BoLA complex and the gamma S crystallin gene) in different breeds comprising Bos taurus cattle of Europe and Africa, Bos indicus of West and East Africa, as well as the Brahman of Martinique and the Creole crossbred of Guadeloupe. By comparing the different allele frequencies of these 5 non related polymorphic loci and by using the two different mathematical matrices of NEI and of CAVALLI-SFORZA, have been established the genetic distances between these breeds. It appears clearly that the Creole cattle of Guadeloupe are in an intermediate position between the Bos taurus N'Dama breed of West Africa and two Bos indicus zebu breeds, namely the West African Sudan zebu and the Brahman. Thanks to studies of different archieves in the Caribbean and in Europe, historical evidence have been accumulated on the geographical origins and on the chronology of the establishment of Creole and Brahman cattle in the French West Indies. The high resistance of the Creole cattle of Guadeloupe to diseases associated with or transmitted by the "Senegalese" tick Amblyomma variegatum seems to be due to the inheritance of a pool of genes from West African cattle and more particularly from the N'Dama breed.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) | ||
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| "Asymptomatic carrier state in Creole goats and cattle after recovery from Cowdria infection in Guadeloupe." | ||
| Camus, E. | 1992 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 45(2): 133-5. |
| Creole goats and cattle in Guadeloupe can be carriers of cowdriosis (heartwater: Cowdria ruminantium) after recovery for a period as long as 11 months in goats and 2 months in cattle. The carrier status was demonstrated by feeding Amblyomma variegatum nymphs on recovered animals and the resulting adult ticks on susceptible goats. Cowdria ruminantium was not detected permanently during the carrier status. | ||
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| "The role of Amblyomma variegatum in the transmission of heartwater with special reference to Guadeloupe." | ||
| Camus, E. and N. Barre | 1992 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 653: 33-41 |
| Heartwater has been diagnosed in Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, and Antigua; it induces important losses among goats and European or cross-bred cattle when local zebu creole are highly resistant to infection. Amblyomma variegatum is the vector of the disease in the Caribbean. The tick strain of Martinique, occurring in that island that has apparently been disease-free since 1948, has not lost its ability to experimentally transmit the disease. In Guadeloupe 97% of nymphs and nearly 100% of adults feed on cattle and goats. Some immature ticks (4.5%) feed on wildlife, including birds that may be involved in the spread of infected ticks. Only 1 to 4% of adult ticks are infected and only a proportion of infected ticks are really infective: 53%, 9%, and 50% of nymphs, males, and females, respectively. Nymphs play the major role in the transmission: they are more numerous than adults and engorge faster. Infected ticks have the same maximum longevity as noninfected ticks, that is, 18 months for nymphs and nearly 23 months for adults. Cowdria is not transmitted immediately after tick fixation but after a delay of 2-3 days for nymphs and 4 days for adults. The disease is more often fatal when transmitted by tick biting rather than by needle transmission. The daily infection rate that summarizes all the parameters is very low (0.14% and 0.20% for goats and cattle, respectively), resulting in an unstable epidemiological situation. The transmission of Cowdria by A. variegatum in Guadeloupe shows significant differences compared with the transmission by A. hebraeum in Africa. | ||
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| "Sites of fixation of Amblyomma variegatum ticks on their hosts in Guadeloupe (French west Indies)." | ||
| Barre, N., E. Camus, et al. | 1991 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 44(4): 453-8. |
| The examination of 458 domestic and wild hosts of the tick A. variegatum allowed to collect 8,581 larvae, 646 nymphs, 685 adults in 9 different animal species and to determine their preferential attachment sites. In another survey on 15 goats and 5 cattle, 12,345 larvae, 2,111 nymphs and 4,625 adults were counted on the anatomic sites. Immature ticks feed preferentially on the head, neck and limbs of birds, the limbs of mongoose and the limbs and ears of dogs, goats and cattle. Adults feed only on hosts of medium to large size and attach on ventral parts of the body, especially the groin, perineum, axillae and the dewlap of cattle. This tick species should be searched for on these sites when estimating its propagation in a threatened area or the evolution of its population during an eradication campaign. Moreover, the acaricide concentration on these sites must be optimal during systematic treatments. | ||
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| "Predators of the tick Amblyomma variegatum (Acari: Ixodidae) in Guadeloupe, French West Indies." | ||
| Barre, N., H. Mauleon, et al. | 1991 | Exp Appl Acarol 12(3-4): 163-70. |
| Some vertebrate species in Guadeloupe are predators of free or parasitic stages of Amblyomma variegatum (Fabricius). Among birds, 1.9% of the 421 identified animals found in the stomachs of grackles (Quiscalus lugubris), 1.6% of the 364 animals found in the stomachs of free-ranging chickens, and 0.3% of the 4642 animals found in the stomach of cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis) were A. variegatum ticks. The most efficient predator of ticks was the tropical fire ant, Solenopsis geminata, which was observed to only attack engorged stages of ticks. An average of 8% of the 564 individual ticks or batch of ticks released on the ground, mainly in a grass environment, were attacked by this ant species. Mice (Mus musculus) and mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) feed on engorged nymphs and female ticks. None of the 15 strains of entomophagous nematodes, genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis, experimentally put in contact with engorged larvae and nymphs were able to parasitize them. In the laboratory, the insects Megaselia scalaris (Diptera) and Tineola sp. (Lepidoptera) were occasionally found to feed on engorged and unfed ticks, respectively. | ||
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| "Acaricide susceptibility of Amblyomma variegatum (Acari:Ixodidae) from Puerto Rico and Guadeloupe." | ||
| Garris, G. I. and N. Barre | 1991 | Exp Appl Acarol 12(3-4): 171-9. |
| Base-line data on acaricide susceptibility of larvae and of larvae and nymphs of the tropical bont tick, Amblyomma variegatum (Fabricius), from Puerto Rico and Guadeloupe were collected on 14 and six compounds, respectively. Nymphs 7-8 weeks old from Puerto Rico and Guadeloupe, and larvae 3-4 weeks old from Guadeloupe, were exposed for 24 or 48 h to residues of acetone dilutions of technical-grade or commercial formulations of acaricides on disposable glass pipettes. Effectiveness of the acaricides in killing nymphs (LC50) from Guadeloupe and Puerto Rico ranged from 0.0001% for deltamethrin2 to 0.269% for malathion. For Puerto Rico, the susceptibility to toxaphene and amitraz, but not to dioxathion, increased with increasing age of nymphs. Nymphs from Guadeloupe were 9.5 times more susceptible to chlorpyrifos than nymphs from Puerto Rico. The susceptibility of larvae from Guadeloupe to acaricides tested ranged from LC50 0.000012% for deltamethrin to 0.0141% for ethion. There was no evidence of development of acaricide resistance in ticks from Guadeloupe or Puerto Rico. | ||
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| "Amblyomma variegatum and associated diseases in the Caribbean: strategies for control and eradication in Guadeloupe." | ||
| Camus, E. and N. Barre | 1990 | Parassitologia 32(1): 185-93. |
| Amblyomma variegatum, introduced into Guadelopue 150 years ago, has recently spread in the Lesser Antilles and threatens North America. Two important diseases are associated with the tick: heartwater and dermatophilosis. Heartwater occurs in Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante and Antigua; acute dermatophilosis exists almost everywhere the tick is present. Both are very pathogenic for upgraded or newly-infested cattle. After 15 years of A. variegatum control in Guadeloupe, a balance is established between a tick population maintained at a low level by spraying acaricides and an animal population either completely resistant to heartwater and dermatophilosis (creole cattle) or regularly treated against ticks (upgraded cattle). An eradication campaign against A. variegatum in Guadeloupe, to avoid the spread of the associated diseases, appears technically difficult but possible, economically profitable, but socially completely utopian. We suggest for Guadeloupe a reinforced control of the tick with a persistent acaricide, hoping that a general decrease of the tick infestation rate on cattle will eliminate heartwater and acute dermatophilosis. | ||
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| "Spreading of the tick Amblyomma variegatum in the West Indies: how can this serious menace be explained and what should be done?." | ||
| Uilenberg, G. | 1990 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 43(3): 297-9. |
| The author presents a brief history of the introduction and extension of the African tick Amblyomma variegatum in the Caribbean. The tick is particularly dangerous for the livestock industry because of its role as a vector of heartwater and its association with severe dermatophilosis. It is already distributed in the Lesser Antilles from Puerto Rico to Barbados and St. Vincent. The chronology of its sudden unexplained expansion since the 1960s corresponds well with the multiplication of the cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) in the region, while the tick had hardly extended its distribution during more than 130 years, before this African bird arrived in the western hemisphere. These birds are often infested with larvae of the tick and carry out important movements between islands. The imminent invasion of the American continent appears unavoidable, with incalculable disastrous consequences for the livestock industry, unless the tick is rapidly eradicated from all infested islands. While presenting practical, human and social problems, eradication from the islands is technically feasible and its cost/benefit ratio is very positive. | ||
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| "Evaluation of the eradication program for Amblyomma variegatum (Acari:Ixodidae) on Puerto Rico." | ||
| Garris, G. I., B. H. Bokma, et al. | 1989 | Exp Appl Acarol 6(1): 67-76. |
| A cooperative effort between the United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Services, the Agricultural Research Service, and the Department of Agriculture, Commonwealth Government of Puerto Rico has been successful in eradicating Amblyomma variegatum (Fabricius) from the islands of Puerto Rico and Vieques (an island municipality of Puerto Rico). Application of acaricides to livestock and dogs at 14-day intervals for an 18-month period eliminated foci of tick infestation on 188 farms in four different locations without additional aerial or ground treatment. Reasons for the success and some of the costs associated with the eradication program on Puerto Rico are presented. | ||
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| "Hosts and population dynamics of Amblyomma variegatum (Acari: Ixodidae) on Guadeloupe, French West Indies." | ||
| Barre, N., G. I. Garris, et al. | 1988 | J Med Entomol 25(2): 111-5. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Remote recognition of Amblyomma variegatum habitats in Guadeloupe using LANDSAT-TM imagery." | ||
| Hugh-Jones, M. E., N. Barre, et al. | 1988 | Acta Vet Scand Suppl 84: 259-61. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Trial of flumethrine for Amblyomma variegatum tick control on a cattle ranch in Guadeloupe." | ||
| Barre, N., E. Camus, et al. | 1987 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 40(2): 127-31. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Amblyomma variegatum (Acari: Ixodidae): population dynamics and hosts used during an eradication program in Puerto Rico." | ||
| Garris, G. I. | 1987 | J Med Entomol 24(1): 82-6. |
| No abstract available | ||
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Heartwater | ||
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| "Comparative genomic analysis of three strains of Ehrlichia ruminantium reveals an active process of genome size plasticity." | ||
| Frutos, R., A. Viari, et al. | 2006 | J Bacteriol 188(7): 2533-42. |
| Ehrlichia ruminantium is the causative agent of heartwater, a major tick-borne disease of livestock in Africa that has been introduced in the Caribbean and is threatening to emerge and spread on the American mainland. We sequenced the complete genomes of two strains of E. ruminantium of differing phenotypes, strains Gardel (Erga; 1,499,920 bp), from the island of Guadeloupe, and Welgevonden (Erwe; 1,512,977 bp), originating in South Africa and maintained in Guadeloupe in a different cell environment. Comparative genomic analysis of these two strains was performed with the recently published parent strain of Erwe (Erwo) and other Rickettsiales (Anaplasma, Wolbachia, and Rickettsia spp.). Gene order is highly conserved between the E. ruminantium strains and with A. marginale. In contrast, there is very little conservation of gene order with members of the Rickettsiaceae. However, gene order may be locally conserved, as illustrated by the tuf operons. Eighteen truncated protein-encoding sequences (CDSs) differentiate Erga from Erwe/Erwo, whereas four other truncated CDSs differentiate Erwe from Erwo. Moreover, E. ruminantium displays the lowest coding ratio observed among bacteria due to unusually long intergenic regions. This is related to an active process of genome expansion/contraction targeted at tandem repeats in noncoding regions and based on the addition or removal of ca. 150-bp tandem units. This process seems to be specific to E. ruminantium and is not observed in the other Rickettsiales. | ||
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| "Optimisation of the inactivated vaccine dose against heartwater and in vitro quantification of Ehrlichia ruminantium challenge material." | ||
| Vachiery, N., T. Lefrancois, et al. | 2006 | Vaccine. |
| The aim of this work was to evaluate the minimal protective dose of the inactivated vaccine against heartwater. In order to conduct a reliable vaccination trial, an in vitro quantification method of Ehrlichia ruminantium (ER) challenge doses was developed. In experimental conditions, homologous Gardel challenges with 2.1x10(4) to 9.4x10(4) live ER elementary bodies were reproducible and mimicked a natural challenge. Similar results were obtained when animals were challenged with 3x10(4) live elementary bodies from five different ER strains. A 28-fold reduction of the vaccine dose did not decrease protection when compared to the conventional dose of inactivated vaccine. Two injections of 35mug of ER antigen induced good protection against heartwater. Moreover, we found that the amount of IFNgamma secreted in blood from vaccinated animals after in vitro stimulation with ER antigen was not a reliable predictor of survival and could not be used to test the potency of the inactivated vaccine. | ||
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| "Quantification of Ehrlichia ruminantium by real time PCR." | ||
| Peixoto, C. C., I. Marcelino, et al. | 2005 | Vet Microbiol 107(3-4): 273-8. |
| Ehrlichia ruminantium (ER) is the causative agent of Heartwater, one of the most common tick-borne diseases affecting ruminants in African countries and West Indies. Although ER can be used as an inactivated vaccine for wild and domestic animals, there are currently no easy and reliable methods for the quantification of this obligate intracellular bacterium. This report describes the development of a SYBR Green I based real time PCR protocol for the quantification of ER for vaccine production purposes. The method was validated for four ER strains. The external-standard-based PCR protocol developed has a large dynamic quantitative range allowing accurate ER measurement in samples containing from 10(2) to 10(8) gene copies; the method is also reproducible and precise, with intra- and inter-assay coefficients below 5%. The detection limits were validated for samples collected from bovine aortic endothelial cell culture bulks, which are commonly used to produce the ER vaccine. In contrast to the methods based upon protein content, no interference from the host cells in ER quantification was observed. Furthermore, the extended applicability of the new technique was demonstrated by monitoring ER production in cell culture thus rendering it a valuable tool to ensure consistency between vaccine lots and to evaluate optimal vaccine dosage. | ||
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| "An attenuated Ehrlichia ruminantium (Welgevonden stock) vaccine protects small ruminants against virulent heartwater challenge." | ||
| Zweygarth, E., A. I. Josemans, et al. | 2005 | Vaccine 23(14): 1695-702. |
| Heartwater is a tick-borne disease of ruminants caused by the intracellular rickettsia Ehrlichia ruminantium. The only commercially available immunization procedure involves infecting animals with cryopreserved sheep blood containing virulent E. ruminantium organisms, followed by treatment with tetracyclines when fever develops. The virulent Welgevonden stock of E. ruminantium was attenuated by continuous propagation of the organisms in a canine macrophage-monocyte cell line (DH82), followed by re-adaptation to grow in a bovine endothelial cell line (BA 886). The material used for the present experiments consisted of the attenuated stock between passages 43 and 64 after re-adaptation. When inoculated into sheep or goats the attenuated organisms did not produce disease, and the only symptom observed was a rise in body temperature in most, but not all, animals. All sheep injected with 2 ml of culture suspension were subsequently found to be fully protected against a lethal needle challenge with the virulent homologous stock or with one of four different heterologous stocks (Ball 3, Gardel, Mara 87/7, Blaauwkrans). Titrations of elementary body suspensions showed that 2ml of a 1:10,000 dilution of culture suspension injected into sheep or goats was still sufficient to trigger an immune response which resisted a lethal needle challenge with the virulent Welgevonden stock. Adult Amblyomma hebraeum ticks, fed as nymphs on sheep immunized with DH82-derived organisms of passage 111, were able to transmit the attenuated stock to a naive sheep, which was found to be protected against a subsequent lethal homologous needle challenge. | ||
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| "Nested PCR for detection and genotyping of Ehrlichia ruminantium: use in genetic diversity analysis." | ||
| Martinez, D., N. Vachiery, et al. | 2004 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 1026: 106-13. |
| Ehrlichia ruminantium, the agent of cowdriosis transmitted by Amblyomma ticks, presents an extensive genetic and antigenic diversity of key importance for vaccine formulation. Two means of nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting were developed to conduct molecular epidemiology studies in the Caribbean and Africa. The first used a conserved DNA fragment for detection of the pathogen in animals and vectors, and the second relied on the polymorphic map1 gene for genotyping. As compared to a PCR, the nested PCR showed a 2-Log10 improvement of sensitivity and allowed amplification from ticks, blood, brain, and lungs from infected animals, providing a more accurate picture of the tick infection rate. In Guadeloupe, this rate reached 36% (N = 212) instead of 1.7% (N = 224), as previously estimated. Genetic typing was done by restriction fragment length polymorphism or sequencing of map1 amplification products. Molecular epidemiology studies conducted in field sites selected for vaccination trials with inactivated vaccine, revealed the circulation of genetically divergent strains in limited geographical areas. It is known, then, that genetic clustering based on map1 has no predictive value regarding the protective value of a given strain against a new strain. However, tracing the strains by this technique revealed the extent of E. ruminantium diversity that one can expect in a given region, and the method allows differentiation between an inadequate immune response and the challenge by a breakthrough strain on animals dying despite vaccination. Up to now, genetic typing does not avoid cross-protection studies, which were conducted in parallel, although on a more limited scale. The importance of pathogen diversity studies for optimization of vaccine design is discussed as well as the research for new polymorphic genes. These genes may allow better predictions on cross-protection, given the recent completion of the sequence of the full genome of two E. ruminantium strains. | ||
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| "Development of improved vaccines for heartwater." | ||
| Collins, N. E., A. Pretorius, et al. | 2003 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 990: 474-84. |
| Heartwater is a tick-borne disease of ruminants which causes major economic losses for domestic livestock owners throughout sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean. It is caused by the intracellular rickettsia Ehrlichia (formerly Cowdria) ruminantium and the only commercially available vaccination procedure is over 50 years old. It involves infecting animals with cryopreserved sheep blood containing virulent E. ruminantium organisms, followed by antibiotic treatment when fever develops. Experimental attenuated, inactivated, and nucleic acid vaccine procedures have been investigated over the last half-century, but none of them has yet been particularly successful. We have developed two new experimental vaccines, a live attenuated vaccine and a nucleic acid vaccine. The attenuated vaccine was developed by continuous passage of E. ruminantium organisms of the virulent Welgevonden isolate in a continuous canine macrophage-monocyte cell line. After more than 50 passages the cultures produced no disease when inoculated into mice or sheep, and the inoculated animals were 100% immune to a subsequent lethal homologous needle challenge. The nucleic acid vaccine is based on four E. ruminantium genes from a genetic locus involved in nutrient transport. A cocktail of all four genes, cloned in a DNA vaccine vector and used to immunize sheep, engendered 100% protection against a subsequent lethal needle challenge with the homologous isolate and with each of five different virulent heterologous isolates. Sheep immunized with this cocktail were also exposed to a field challenge in a heartwater-endemic area and few animals survived. This suggests that the local E. ruminantium genotypes were different from any which were administered by needle challenge, or that needle challenge is not a good model for tick challenge in the field. | ||
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| "Development of improved vaccines for heartwater." | ||
| Mahan, S. M., A. F. Barbet, et al. | 2003 | Dev Biol (Basel) 114: 137-45. |
| Heartwater is controlled by frequent application of acaricides, which is costly, creates endemic instability and has the potential of contaminating the environment. The live blood vaccine currently available has limitations because it is laborious and inconvenient to use, difficult to standardise and can transmit other blood-borne pathogens. The UF/USAID/SADC Heartwater Research Project has conducted research on the development of two types of vaccine for heartwater. The first-generation inactivated vaccine has been intensively tested in the laboratory and subsequently field tested in four southern African countries. It protects cattle, sheep and goats against mortality from heartwater challenge. It can be modified to incorporate any Ehrlichia ruminantium strain to provide protection from field challenge. The second-generation DNA vaccine containing genes encoding immunogenic E. ruminantium proteins has been developed and evaluated in the mouse model as well as in cattle and sheep. The use of improved vaccines against heartwater would have a positive impact on livestock farming in sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean and could be used to control the spread of heartwater if it were to be introduced into regions such as the United States. | ||
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| "Increasing risks of introduction of heartwater onto the American mainland associated with animal movements." | ||
| Burridge, M. J., L. A. Simmons, et al. | 2002 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 969: 269-74. |
| Opportunities to introduce heartwater onto the American mainland through animal movements include importation from Africa of tick-infested reptiles and of subclinically infected wild ungulates and importation of livestock from islands in the Caribbean infested with Amblyomma variegatum ticks. Measures to control importation of heartwater vectors on reptiles include importation bans of infested species, treatment of imported reptiles, and eradication of established infestations on the American mainland. Measures to control importation of infected wildlife must focus on improved methods, such as the PCR assay, of screening animals to prevent the entry of carriers of Cowdria ruminantium. Measures to control importation of infected animals from the Caribbean must be based on knowledge of the islands that are infected with C. ruminantium so that the risk of dissemination of heartwater can be established. | ||
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| "Ehrlichia ruminantium infection (heartwater) in wild animals." | ||
| Peter, T. F., M. J. Burridge, et al. | 2002 | Trends Parasitol 18(5): 214-8. |
| Several wild animal species have been implicated as hosts of Ehrlichia ruminantium (formerly Cowdria ruminantium), the rickettsial agent causing heartwater, a fatal disease of domestic ruminants in sub-Saharan Africa and eastern Caribbean. However, evidence for infection in most wild species is inconclusive because of inadequate diagnostic techniques. Infection has been proven only in 12 African ruminants, three non-African ruminants and two African rodents. A subclinical carrier state occurs in eight of the African ruminant species. Further studies on E. ruminantium infection in wild animal species are needed in order to determine the host range of this pathogen accurately. The host range of Ehrlichia ruminantium in wildlife is reviewed here and the role played by these species in the epidemiology and spread of heartwater is discussed. | ||
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| "Babesiosis and heartwater: threats without boundaries." | ||
| Wagner, G. G., P. Holman, et al. | 2002 | Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 18(3): 417-30, vi-vii. |
| Suppose one of your clients from southern Florida starts talking about cattle egrets while you are vaccinating her cat. It seems she found a nearly dead egret near the cattle pen a few days ago, picked it up, and noticed a number of what looked like small ticks on the legs. Or, suppose you are called out to a small dairy in central Texas to look at some cows that are feverish and anemic. The first animal you examine has a few brown ticks attached just under the tail. Finally, perhaps you are looking at a lame tortoise for a reptile fancier, a new client, and find a large, colorful tick on a hind leg, well up under the shell. Ring any bells? Egrets are great hosts for the immature stages of Amblyomma ticks and have been captured and marked in the eastern Caribbean, then recaptured in the Florida Keys. Those cattle ticks in Texas might be acaricide-resistant Boophilus ticks that originated in Mexico. The Amblyomma tick on the tortoise could well have "hitch-hiked" all the way from South Africa. By now you remember that both Amblyomma and Boophilus ticks are efficient vectors of two tickborne diseases in this hemisphere, heartwater (in the case of Amblyomma) and babesiosis (transmitted by Boophilus ticks). Both of these diseases are exotic to the United States, and because our livestock are considered to be totally susceptible, an introduced infection could result in high initial death losses (approximately 70%); thus, both the ticks and the diseases pose immediate threats to the health and economic security of United States animal industries. Most importantly, you, whether as a small animal or large animal practitioner, are the first line of defense against such exotic diseases and their vectors. | ||
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| "Reorganization of genera in the families Rickettsiaceae and Anaplasmataceae in the order Rickettsiales: unification of some species of Ehrlichia with Anaplasma, Cowdria with Ehrlichia and Ehrlichia with Neorickettsia, descriptions of six new species combinations and designation of Ehrlichia equi and 'HGE agent' as subjective synonyms of Ehrlichia phagocytophila." | ||
| Dumler, J. S., A. F. Barbet, et al. | 2001 | Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 51(Pt 6): 2145-65. |
| The genera Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Cowdria, Neorickettsia and Wolbachia encompass a group of obligate intracellular bacteria that reside in vacuoles of eukaryotic cells and were previously placed in taxa based upon morphological, ecological, epidemiological and clinical characteristics. Recent genetic analyses of 16S rRNA genes, groESL and surface protein genes have indicated that the existing taxa designations are flawed. All 16S rRNA gene and groESL sequences deposited in GenBank prior to 2000 and selected sequences deposited thereafter were aligned and phylogenetic trees and bootstrap values were calculated using the neighbour-joining method and compared with trees generated with maximum-probability, maximum-likelihood, majority-rule consensus and parsimony methods. Supported by bootstrap probabilities of at least 54%, 16S rRNA gene comparisons consistently clustered to yield four distinct clades characterized roughly as Anaplasma (including the Ehrlichia phagocytophila group, Ehrlichia platys and Ehrlichia bovis) with a minimum of 96.1% similarity, Ehrlichia (including Cowdria ruminantium) with a minimum of 97.7% similarity, Wolbachia with a minimum of 95.6% similarity and Neorickettsia (including Ehrlichia sennetsu and Ehrlichia risticii) with a minimum of 94.9% similarity. Maximum similarity between clades ranged from 87.1 to 94.9%. Insufficient differences existed among E. phagocytophila, Ehrlichia equi and the human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE) agent to support separate species designations, and this group was at least 98.2% similar to any Anaplasma species. These 16S rRNA gene analyses are strongly supported by similar groESL clades, as well as biological and antigenic characteristics. It is proposed that all members of the tribes Ehrlichieae and Wolbachieae be transferred to the family Anaplasmataceae and that the tribe structure of the family Rickettsiaceae be eliminated. The genus Anaplasma should be emended to include Anaplasma (Ehrlichia) phagocytophila comb. nov. (which also encompasses the former E. equi and the HGE agent), Anaplasma (Ehrlichia) bovis comb. nov. and Anaplasma (Ehrlichia) platys comb. nov., the genus Ehrlichia should be emended to include Ehrlichia (Cowdria) ruminantium comb. nov. and the genus Neorickettsia should be emended to include Neorickettsia (Ehrlichia) risticii comb. nov. and Neorickettsia (Ehrlichia) sennetsu comb. nov. | ||
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| "A review of heartwater and the threat of introduction of Cowdria ruminantium and Amblyomma spp. ticks to the American mainland." | ||
| Deem, S. L. | 1998 | J Zoo Wildl Med 29(2): 109-13. |
| Heartwater, caused by the rickettsial agent Cowdria ruminantium, is one of the most devastating livestock diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. In addition to domestic cattle, sheep, and goats, a variety of nondomestic species can acquire subclinical and clinical infections. Recent epidemiologic findings that demonstrate a long-term host carrier state in domestic and wild ruminants, intrastadial transmission by the tick vectors (Amblyomma spp.), vertical transmission of the agent from cows to their calves, and the presence of both C. ruminantium and Amblyomma variegatum in the Caribbean suggest that the introduction of this exotic disease to the American mainland is a significant threat. Veterinarians working with wildlife should be familiar with this disease and should follow appropriate preventive measures to minimize the risk of infection in captive and wild populations of ruminants. | ||
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| "Propagation of the tick Amblyomma variegatum in the Caribbean." | ||
| Barre, N., G. Garris, et al. | 1995 | Rev Sci Tech 14(3): 841-55. |
| The tropical bont tick, Amblyomma variegatum, is an African tick species which infests livestock and wildlife. It was probably introduced in the central eastern islands of the Caribbean during the 18th or 19th century, with cattle shipped from Senegal. In Africa and the Caribbean, this tick is a vector of heartwater (a rickettsial disease of ruminants) and is associated with acute dermatophilosis (a bacterial skin disease of animals). Until 1948, only Guadeloupe and the neighbouring islands of Marie Galante and Antigua were infested with this tick species. Following increased agricultural commerce between Guadeloupe and Martinique, the latter became infested in 1948. Between 1967 (when the tick was identified in St Croix) and 1988 (when a male tick was reported in St Vincent), fourteen new islands were reached by this tick. Most of the dissemination of the tick to new islands cannot be explained by legal or illegal movements of livestock. Recently-determined circumstantial evidence strongly links the increase in populations of the cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), a migrating bird established in the Caribbean circa 1960, with increased colonisation of new islands by A. variegatum. Considering the wide range of areas currently occupied by this bird species in the Greater Antilles and on the American mainland, there is a high probability that the tick will also expand its range and invade new areas. Eradication of A. variegatum from the Caribbean and thus from the western hemisphere, and the strengthening of measures to prevent inter-island movements of livestock, would be the only effective means of preventing this threat. | ||
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| "Heartwater in Guadeloupe and in the Caribbean." | ||
| Camus, E., D. Martinez, et al. | 1993 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 46(1-2): 109-14. |
| A sero-epidemiological survey for heartwater was organized in 1992 in the Lesser Antilles, from Grenada to Saint Martin. Blood from about one percent of the ruminant livestock of the islands was randomly sampled and the sera were tested with an indirect ELISA. The percentage of positive sera was found to be 30% in Guadeloupe, 25% in Antigua, 2.2% in St.Martin, 1.3% in St.Kitts & Nevis, 3.8% in Montserrat, 1.7% in Dominica, 1.5% in St.Lucia, 1.5% in St.Vincent, 3.5% in Barbados, 2.9% in Grenada and 7% in Martinique. Ruminants from Guadeloupe and Antigua are known to be infected with heartwater. The low percentage of positive sera and the absence of clinical cases in the other islands strongly suggest that positive sera in these islands are probably due to non-specific cross reactions between Cowdria and other micro-organisms (possibly Ehrlichia) which remain to be isolated. In particular, the high percentages of positive sheep sera in Martinique (15%) and Montserrat (11%) should be further investigated. | ||
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| "Progress in research on tick-borne diseases: theileriosis and heartwater." | ||
| Uilenberg, G., D. A. Dobbelaere, et al. | 1993 | Vet Q 15(2): 48-54. |
| The rapid population growth in subsaharan Africa necessitates a great increase in animal production in the more humid zones. Vector-borne diseases occurring in these zones will assume more importance, but are difficult to control. They include theileriosis and heartwater. Recent developments in research on these diseases are presented. Indigenous animal populations in endemic areas, subjected to natural selection, are far less susceptible than exotic stock. Heartwater, caused by the rickettsia Cowdria ruminantium, transmitted by Amblyomma ticks, causes high mortality in exotic ruminants. It has received much attention in recent years, partly because the disease has been introduced from Africa into the Caribbean and threatens the American mainland. Since the recent success of in vitro culture, much progress in research has been made, but so far prevention still relies mainly on acaricidal tick control; an infection and treatment method is used on a limited scale. Antigenic diversity is a complication for immunization procedures. Theileria parva (East Coast fever, Corridor disease and January disease) and T.annulata (Mediterranean or tropical theileriosis) are the most pathogenic of the 6 species of this protozoan genus that infect cattle. Great progress has been made in recent years in knowledge on the immunology, the epidemiology, the taxonomy and the chemotherapy of theileriosis. Intensive acaricidal tick control can now be supplemented by an attenuated schizont vaccine against T.annulata, while immunization against East Coast fever is carried out on a limited scale using virulent sporozoite infection and treatment. Research on recombinant vaccines is promising. Antigenic diversity in T.parva is a serious complication. | ||
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| "Asymptomatic carrier state in Creole goats and cattle after recovery from Cowdria infection in Guadeloupe." | ||
| Camus, E. | 1992 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 45(2): 133-5. |
| Creole goats and cattle in Guadeloupe can be carriers of cowdriosis (heartwater: Cowdria ruminantium) after recovery for a period as long as 11 months in goats and 2 months in cattle. The carrier status was demonstrated by feeding Amblyomma variegatum nymphs on recovered animals and the resulting adult ticks on susceptible goats. Cowdria ruminantium was not detected permanently during the carrier status. | ||
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| "The role of Amblyomma variegatum in the transmission of heartwater with special reference to Guadeloupe." | ||
| Camus, E. and N. Barre | 1992 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 653: 33-41. |
| Heartwater has been diagnosed in Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, and Antigua; it induces important losses among goats and European or cross-bred cattle when local zebu creole are highly resistant to infection. Amblyomma variegatum is the vector of the disease in the Caribbean. The tick strain of Martinique, occurring in that island that has apparently been disease-free since 1948, has not lost its ability to experimentally transmit the disease. In Guadeloupe 97% of nymphs and nearly 100% of adults feed on cattle and goats. Some immature ticks (4.5%) feed on wildlife, including birds that may be involved in the spread of infected ticks. Only 1 to 4% of adult ticks are infected and only a proportion of infected ticks are really infective: 53%, 9%, and 50% of nymphs, males, and females, respectively. Nymphs play the major role in the transmission: they are more numerous than adults and engorge faster. Infected ticks have the same maximum longevity as noninfected ticks, that is, 18 months for nymphs and nearly 23 months for adults. Cowdria is not transmitted immediately after tick fixation but after a delay of 2-3 days for nymphs and 4 days for adults. The disease is more often fatal when transmitted by tick biting rather than by needle transmission. The daily infection rate that summarizes all the parameters is very low (0.14% and 0.20% for goats and cattle, respectively), resulting in an unstable epidemiological situation. The transmission of Cowdria by A. variegatum in Guadeloupe shows significant differences compared with the transmission by A. hebraeum in Africa. | ||
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| "Distribution of heartwater in the Caribbean determined on the basis of detection of antibodies to the conserved 32-kilodalton protein of Cowdria ruminantium." | ||
| Muller Kubold, A., D. Martinez, et al. | 1992 | J Clin Microbiol 30(7): 1870-3. |
| A competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) was developed to detect immunoglobulin G antibodies to the major 32-kDa protein of Cowdria ruminantium. A total of 1,804 serum samples collected from cattle on 19 islands in the eastern Caribbean Basin were tested by this cELISA. A total of 133 serum samples from 10 islands (Antigua, Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Montserrat, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Martin, and St. Vincent) were found to be positive. The presence of antibodies to C. ruminantium in cattle on these islands was confirmed by immunofluorescence and Western blotting (immunoblotting). In earlier studies, C. ruminantium has been demonstrated only on Guadeloupe, Antigua, and Marie Galante. This study shows that the causative agent of heartwater is now firmly established in the Caribbean. | ||
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| "Amblyomma variegatum and associated diseases in the Caribbean: strategies for control and eradication in Guadeloupe." | ||
| Camus, E. and N. Barre | 1990 | Parassitologia 32(1): 185-93. |
| Amblyomma variegatum, introduced into Guadelopue 150 years ago, has recently spread in the Lesser Antilles and threatens North America. Two important diseases are associated with the tick: heartwater and dermatophilosis. Heartwater occurs in Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante and Antigua; acute dermatophilosis exists almost everywhere the tick is present. Both are very pathogenic for upgraded or newly-infested cattle. After 15 years of A. variegatum control in Guadeloupe, a balance is established between a tick population maintained at a low level by spraying acaricides and an animal population either completely resistant to heartwater and dermatophilosis (creole cattle) or regularly treated against ticks (upgraded cattle). An eradication campaign against A. variegatum in Guadeloupe, to avoid the spread of the associated diseases, appears technically difficult but possible, economically profitable, but socially completely utopian. We suggest for Guadeloupe a reinforced control of the tick with a persistent acaricide, hoping that a general decrease of the tick infestation rate on cattle will eliminate heartwater and acute dermatophilosis. | ||
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| "Spreading of the tick Amblyomma variegatum in the West Indies: how can this serious menace be explained and what should be done?." | ||
| Uilenberg, G. | 1990 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 43(3): 297-9. |
| The author presents a brief history of the introduction and extension of the African tick Amblyomma variegatum in the Caribbean. The tick is particularly dangerous for the livestock industry because of its role as a vector of heartwater and its association with severe dermatophilosis. It is already distributed in the Lesser Antilles from Puerto Rico to Barbados and St. Vincent. The chronology of its sudden unexplained expansion since the 1960s corresponds well with the multiplication of the cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) in the region, while the tick had hardly extended its distribution during more than 130 years, before this African bird arrived in the western hemisphere. These birds are often infested with larvae of the tick and carry out important movements between islands. The imminent invasion of the American continent appears unavoidable, with incalculable disastrous consequences for the livestock industry, unless the tick is rapidly eradicated from all infested islands. While presenting practical, human and social problems, eradication from the islands is technically feasible and its cost/benefit ratio is very positive. | ||
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| "Danger of introducing heartwater into the American mainland: potential role of indigenous and exotic Amblyomma ticks." | ||
| Barre, N., G. Uilenberg, et al. | 1987 | Onderstepoort J Vet Res 54(3): 405-17. |
| The existence of heartwater on 3 islands of the Central Lesser Antilles and the presence of an efficient vector originating from Africa, Amblyomma variegatum, on most of the islands of this region constitute a serious threat for livestock on the American mainland. The disease can be introduced there either by infected animals or infected ticks. The most likely way is probably the transportation of domestic animals which are heavily infested by ticks. Due to the low rate of infection of ticks in endemic areas and the low rate of infestation of wild animals by ticks, the risk of transportation by migratory birds (among which the cattle egret is the most important) seems negligible compared with domestic animals, especially ruminants and dogs. The establishment and spread of the disease on the mainland could result from indigenous American Amblyomma species, of which at least 2, Amblyomma cajennense and, more especially, Amblyomma maculatum, are experimental vectors. The biological and ecological features of these ticks conform to some extent with the characteristics necessary for them to act as vectors. They are widespread and sufficiently well adapted to ruminants to ensure the continuation of the epidemiological cycle. Disease could evolve in wild life (deer) or, as seems more likely, in livestock, of which the population density is very high on most of the mainland. However, the establishment of the disease is more likely to occur if the well adapted vector of heartwater, Amblyomma variegatum, is introduced as well. This exotic species would find environmental conditions favourable for its survival and spread in most of the tropical and subtropical Western Hemisphere. Protection of the American mainland and the disease-free islands of the area must be based on strict control of domestic animal movement in the Caribbean, on the decrease of the vector population by tick control campaigns and, if possible, on the eradication of Amblyomma variegatum from the focus of heartwater on the islands. | ||
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| "Epidemiology of heartwater in Guadeloupe and in the Caribbean." | ||
| Camus, E. and N. Barre | 1987 | Onderstepoort J Vet Res 54(3): 419-26. |
| At present, heartwater in the Caribbean is known with certainty only on Guadeloupe, Marie Galante and Antigua; the first 2 islands are widely infected. The most important factors responsible for particular aspects of heartwater in Guadeloupe are: Cowdria ruminantium of high virulence. A very resistant cattle population (Creole), not normally clinically affected. A fairly susceptible goat population (Creole) (22% goats born in endemic areas die after experimental inoculation) which, fortunately, includes breeding lines with inherited resistance characteristics. Amblyomma variegatum which is present all over the island and all through the year, but with a low infection rate (1-2% of adult ticks are infected) because of the short period of rickettsemia in infected animals. The low rate of tick infection results in a low endemicity of the disease. For goats, the epidemiologic situation can be regarded as unstable because the low rate of infection in ticks does not allow a natural immunization of the majority of young kids when they still have a non-specific resistance. The possible evolution of heartwater in the Caribbean and in the United States in considered. | ||
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| "Diagnosis of heartwater in the live animal: experiences with goats in Guadeloupe." | ||
| Camus, E. and N. Barre | 1987 | Onderstepoort J Vet Res 54(3): 291-4. |
| A presumptive diagnosis of heartwater in the living animal can be based on clinical and epidemiologic observations. In Guadeloupe, heartwater can be confused with haemonchosis in goats or cerebral babesiosis in cattle. Confirmation of the clinical diagnosis by brain biopsy is useful in experimental infections but is hardly applicable in the field. Positive results were obtained from 92% of animals 16 to 18 days after experimental infection. In febrile animals the best results were obtained between the 3rd and 6th days of the thermal response. Diagnosis can also be supported by serological tests. These are useful for monitoring experimental infections and for checking recovered animals in the field. Nineteen goats out of 27 were negative on Day 1 of the febrile reaction but positive a week later. The remaining 8 goats were positive on Day 1 and had greatly increased antibody titres a week later. Confirmation of a diagnosis can also be achieved by subinoculating into susceptible animals either blood or suspensions of ticks collected from suspect animals and then homogenized. Ticks that have engorged on a suspect animal can be allowed to moult and then fed on a susceptible animal to test their infectivity. These methods are time consuming but useful for heartwater surveys. | ||
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| "Genetic resistance of Guadeloupe native goats to heartwater." | ||
| Matheron, G., N. Barre, et al. | 1987 | Onderstepoort J Vet Res 54(3): 337-40. |
| The resistance rate of different populations of the same breed of creole Guadeloupean goats to Cowdria ruminantium infection varied greatly depending on the previous heartwater history of each population. After experimental infection of goats removed decades ago from endemic areas, the observed resistance rate was 25%, while it was 54% in a population that had been isolated from the disease for 10 years and reached 78% in a flock actually exposed to heartwater. This resistance seems to be under genetic control as sex and paternity were the most important factors which could explain resistance in a group of 90 kids of the same flock, tested under controlled conditions. Resistance rate varied greatly (20-83%) depending on the sire, with a heritability estimate of 0.49 for half sibs and 0.85 for full sibs. A recessive sex-linked gene could be involved in the genetic determination of this resistance. From these observations, it can be stated that in endemic heartwater areas, each population, i.e. each flock, will have developed resistance at a definite rate according to population, age and the extent of past and present exposure to the disease, through a natural selection of resistant lines. Populations removed from exposure to heartwater will progressively lose their ability to resist infection through an increase in the frequency of susceptible stock. If our hypothesis of a recessive sex-linked gene is proved correct, it should be easy to select for improved resistance to the Guadeloupe breed of goat to heartwater. | ||
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| "The tick vectors of Cowdria ruminantium (Ixodoidea, Ixodidae, genus Amblyomma) and their distribution." | ||
| Walker, J. B. and A. Olwage | 1987 | Onderstepoort J Vet Res 54(3): 353-79. |
| Twelve species of Amblyomma are presently known to be capable of transmitting Cowdria ruminantium. Of these A. variegatum is the most important and widely distributed vector in Africa. It has also extended its range considerably outside this continent, eastward to the Yemen Arab Republic and to the islands of Madagascar, Reunion and Mauritius, and westward to the Cape Verde islands and to some of the West Indian islands. A. hebraeum is probably the only field vector in most parts of southern Africa. A 3rd species, A. lepidum, is known to have been involved in field outbreaks of heartwater in the Sudan. Two other species are also currently regarded as field vectors of Cowdria: A. astrion on the islands of Sao Tome and Principe, and A. pomposum in Angola. Another 5 African species (A. cohaerens, A. gemma, A. tholloni, A. sparsum and A. marmoreum) have proved to be capable of transmitting heartwater in the laboratory, as have 2 American species (A. maculatum and A. cajennense), but none of these ticks have been implicated in field outbreaks of the disease. | ||
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| "Heartwater in the Caribbean: isolation of Cowdria ruminantium from Antigua." | ||
| Birnie, E. F., M. J. Burridge, et al. | 1985 | Vet Rec 116(5): 121-3. |
| Adult Ambylomma variegatum ticks were collected from 184 cattle, 13 sheep and one goat in Antigua, and ground in phosphate buffered saline. The resultant supernates were cryopreserved in liquid nitrogen. Five supernate pools, each derived from approximately 100 ticks collected from different herds, were thawed and each was inoculated intravenously into a separate experimental goat. One goat exhibited a febrile response with Cowdria ruminantium demonstrable in brain biopsies; after recovery, this animal showed no reaction to a lethal challenge with a Guadeloupe isolate of C ruminantium. | ||
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| "Heartwater invades the Caribbean." | ||
| Burridge, M. J. | 1985 | Parasitol Today 1(6): 175-7. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Cowdriosis (Heartwater) by Cowdria ruminantium in ruminants of French Indies (Guadeloupe) and Mascarene Islands (La Reunion and Mauritius)." | ||
| Perreau, P., P. C. Morel, et al. | 1980 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 33(1): 21-2. |
| No abstract available | ||
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Dermatophilosis | ||
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| "Molecular immunogenetics in susceptibility to bovine dermatophilosis: a candidate gene approach and a concrete field application." | ||
| Maillard, J. C., I. Chantal, et al. | 2002 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 969: 92-6. |
| To identify molecular genetic markers of resistance or susceptibility to dermatophilosis in cattle, we used a functional candidate gene approach to analyze the DNA polymorphisms of targeted genes encoding molecules implicated in known mechanisms of both nonspecific and specific immune responses existing in the pathogen/host interface mechanisms. The most significant results were obtained within the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) where the BoLA-DRB3 and DQB genes encode molecules involved in the antigen presentation to T cell receptors. A unique BoLA class II haplotype, made up of one DRB3 exon 2 allele and one DQB allele, highly correlates with the susceptibility character (P < 0.001). This haplotype marker of susceptibility was also found and validated in other bovine populations. A eugenic marker-assisted selection was developed in the field by eliminating only the animals having this haplotype. The disease prevalence was thereby reduced from 0.76 to 0.02 over 5 years. A crossbreeding plan is in progress to study the genetic transmission of the genotypic and phenotypic characters of susceptibility to dermatophilosis. In conclusion, we discuss several hypotheses at the molecular and cellular levels to better define the exact role of the MHC molecules in disease control and to answer the question: How is MHC diversity selectively maintained by natural selection imposed by pathogens? | ||
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| "Tropical bont tick (Amblyomma variegatum) eradication in the Caribbean. The St. Kitts experience." | ||
| St Clair Phillip, K. | 2000 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 916: 320-5. |
| The tropical bont tick (TBT) was first identified in St. Kitts in 1978. Initially, infestation was observed on cattle that developed a severe dermatitis. Over a period of seven years, the TBT spread to most areas of the island, affecting cattle, sheep, and goats. The ruminant livestock population declined from, 6,000, 9,000, and 7,000 cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively, in 1984 to an estimated 400, 800, and 1,000, cattle, sheep, and goats in 1990. A project to control the tropical bont tick on St. Kitts was implemented in 1983. This effort was based on the use of plunge dips located in communal grazing areas. In October of 1995, the Caribbean Amblyomma Programme was initiated on St. Kitts to eradicate the TBT from the Caribbean. In 1996, there were 416 animal owners with 2,000, 4,300, and 4,000 cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively. Cases of dermatophilosis, declined from 657 in 1995 to 153 in 1996. During the period 1997 to 1998 treatment with Flumethrin continued. The Department of Agriculture initiated activities for treatment compliance, monitoring, and TBT surveillance. The animal population increased to 3,000, 6,000, and 4,500 cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively, and with 810 animal owners participating. The number of cases of dermatophilosis declined to 42. In 1998, the TBT was confined to three foci. The remainder of the island was declared provisionally tick free. | ||
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| "An amino acid sequence coded by the exon 2 of the BoLA DRB3 gene associated with a BoLA class I specificity constitutes a likely genetic marker of resistance to dermatophilosis in Brahman zebu cattle of Martinique (FWI)." | ||
| Maillard, J. C., D. Martinez, et al. | 1996 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 791: 185-97. |
| One hundred and twenty-seven Brahman cattle from several locations in Martinique (FWI), reared under different environmental conditions, were followed over three years and checked for clinical signs of dermatophilosis. To confirm that these animals had been in contact with the pathogen Dermatophilus congolensis, their sera were tested by ELISA. On the basis of this epidemiological study, 12 animals were classified as resistant (seropositive without clinical signs), belonging to herds in which the prevalence of the disease ranged from 25 to nearly 98%. Eighteen animals classified as highly susceptible displayed severe characteristic skin lesions. These 30 selected animals were typed for class I antigens of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). MHC class II genes were analyzed using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) techniques, on the exon 2 of the bovine leucocyte antigen (BoLA) DRB3 gene. Several alleles were found, according to patterns provided by the restriction enzymes used: Fnu 4HI, Dpn II, Hae III, and Rsa I. A particular sequence "EIAY" at amino acid positions 66/67/74/78 located in the antigen recognition sites (ARS) was found in the 12 animals classified as resistant, and 10 of them displayed also class I BoLA-A8 specificity. On the other hand, only 3 out of the 18 susceptible animals showed simultaneously the BoLA-DRB3 "EIAY" sequence and BoLA-A8 specificity. Interestingly, a serine residue at position 30 of the ARS was found in 8 of the susceptible animals and was completely absent from all resistant animals. Furthermore, in a same animal, the serine at position 30 and the EIAY sequence were never found simultaneously on the same haplotype. These results show a strong correlation between the resistant character to dermatophilosis and the association of MHC haplotypes: the BoLA-A8 specificity and the BoLA-DRB3 "EIAY" sequence at ARS positions 66/67/74/78 with the lack of serine in position 30. To confirm these results, family segregation studies are in progress and some interesting observations have been obtained. | ||
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| "Amblyomma tick feeding in relation to host health." | ||
| Walker, A. R. | 1996 | Trop Anim Health Prod 28(2 Suppl): 26S-28S. |
| The tick Amblyomma variegatum has been shown by field and controlled laboratory experiments to have a direct causal relationship with severe clinical dermatophilosis. The tick does not transmit the pathogen in the usual sense, either biologically or mechanically. The tick suppresses the immune system of the host, for unknown reasons, and this appears to enable the existing dermatophilosis to become a severe disease. There are other factors involved with the progression of dermatophilosis to clinical disease, such as malnutrition. However, the role of ticks is so distinct that it is likely that appropriate tick control using acaricide, when combined with other measures to improve the husbandry of the cattle, will reduce the incidence and severity of dermatophilosis. | ||
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| "Propagation of the tick Amblyomma variegatum in the Caribbean." | ||
| Barre, N., G. Garris, et al. | 1995 | Rev Sci Tech 14(3): 841-55. |
| The tropical bont tick, Amblyomma variegatum, is an African tick species which infests livestock and wildlife. It was probably introduced in the central eastern islands of the Caribbean during the 18th or 19th century, with cattle shipped from Senegal. In Africa and the Caribbean, this tick is a vector of heartwater (a rickettsial disease of ruminants) and is associated with acute dermatophilosis (a bacterial skin disease of animals). Until 1948, only Guadeloupe and the neighbouring islands of Marie Galante and Antigua were infested with this tick species. Following increased agricultural commerce between Guadeloupe and Martinique, the latter became infested in 1948. Between 1967 (when the tick was identified in St Croix) and 1988 (when a male tick was reported in St Vincent), fourteen new islands were reached by this tick. Most of the dissemination of the tick to new islands cannot be explained by legal or illegal movements of livestock. Recently-determined circumstantial evidence strongly links the increase in populations of the cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), a migrating bird established in the Caribbean circa 1960, with increased colonisation of new islands by A. variegatum. Considering the wide range of areas currently occupied by this bird species in the Greater Antilles and on the American mainland, there is a high probability that the tick will also expand its range and invade new areas. Eradication of A. variegatum from the Caribbean and thus from the western hemisphere, and the strengthening of measures to prevent inter-island movements of livestock, would be the only effective means of preventing this threat. | ||
| Top | ||
| "Vector situation of tick-borne diseases in the Caribbean Islands." | ||
| Camus, E. and N. Barre | 1995 | Vet Parasitol 57(1-3): 167-76. |
| The most important ticks transmitting diseases to ruminants in the Caribbean islands are: Amblyomma variegatum, vector of cowdriosis and associated with acute dermatophilosis; Amblyomma cajennense, potential vector of cowdriosis; Boophilus microplus, vector of babesiosis and anaplasmosis. At the present time, Amblyomma variegatum is widespread in the Lesser Antilles from Barbados to Puerto Rico. The intensity of the tick control program varies in the different islands and the tick infestation in each island ranges from limited foci to widespread infestations. The vector situation appeared stable since 1988 in the Lesser Antilles but the outbreak in 1992 in Puerto Rico emphasized the risk of spread to other islands and to the American mainland, particularly with cattle egrets. Cowdriosis remains apparently limited to Guadeloupe and Antigua. Amblyomma cajennense, experimental vector of cowdriosis, is present in Cuba, Jamaica and Trinidad but also in most American countries. Boophilus microplus is widespread throughout the Caribbean. Its presence and importance are often indirectly estimated by the clinical and serological diagnosis of babesiosis and anaplasmosis. There is no correlation between the intensity of Amblyomma variegatum control in each island of the Lesser Antilles and the effect on the Boophilus microplus population measured by the seroprevalence to babesiosis and anaplasmosis, but within the island of Martinique a regular Amblyomma variegatum control decreases the seroprevalences to babesiosis and anaplasmosis. | ||
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| "Study of efficacy of Lamstreptocide A & B on cases of dermatophilosis within the Caribbean." | ||
| Isitor, G. N., C. O. Njoku, et al. | 1993 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 46(1-2): 303-8. |
| The efficacy of Lamstreptocide A & B was studied on 9 natural cases of bovine and caprine dermatophilosis in 8 different farms in St. Kitts, employing standard histopathologic and bacteriological methods. The lesions of 5 of the treated cases were dried-up, and there was marked peeling-off of scabs of a severely affected case exposing erythematous underlying tissue, at 3 weeks post-application of the product. Apart from 3 mild cases which were not available for follow-up studies and which were reported to have recovered, there was no outright recovery of the 5 animals after treatment at 3 weeks, and even after a second application of the product. An in vitro sensitivity test of the product revealed a slowing down of growth of Dermatophilus congolensis at concentrations in excess of 1% by agar-streak method. However, there was no inhibition of growth of the bacterium by an agar-impregnated sensitivity method. | ||
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| "An attempt to identify genetic markers of resistance or susceptibility to dermatophilosis in the zebu Brahman population of Martinique." | ||
| Maillard, J. C., C. Palin, et al. | 1993 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 46(1-2): 291-5. |
| Dermatophilosis is a disease associated with the tick Amblyomma variegatum, and a genetic predisposition to the manifestation of symptoms has been demonstrated. Indeed, the Creole cattle of Guadeloupe constitute a population which is highly resistant to this disease, whereas the Brahman zebu cattle of Martinique seem very susceptible. However, in this Brahman population there is a gradient regarding the severity of symptoms depending on individuals. In several herds of these pure zebu Brahman, kept under the same farming conditions, we selected susceptible and resistant groups because of the simultaneous presence of animals affected or not by clinical dermatophilosis. In these animals we studied several highly polymorphic genetic systems such as haemoglobin, albumin, the BoLA Complex (class I and II) and the gamma S crystallin gene. Only exon 2 of the BoLA-DRB3 gene, investigated by PCR-RFLP technique, showed interesting polymorphisms. We have established a genotypic map showing at least 4 different alleles of which 1 seems particular to one animal susceptible to dermatophilosis. Before reaching any conclusion further investigations with more DNA samples of susceptible animals are needed. | ||
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| "An attempt to correlate cattle breed origins and diseases associated with or transmitted by the tick Amblyomma variegatum in the French West Indies." | ||
| Maillard, J. C., S. J. Kemp, et al. | 1993 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 46(1-2): 283-90. |
| By using biological data and historical research, we have tried to explain the difference between resistance and susceptibility to the diseases transmitted (cowdriosis) or associated (dermatophilosis) with the tick Amblyomma variegatum, in two cattle breeds of the French West Indies: the Creole crossbred cattle of Guadeloupe and the Brahman zebu cattle of Martinique. Have been studied the polymorphisms of 5 independent genetic systems (erythrocytic haemoglobin, serum albumin and transferrin, the class I region of the BoLA complex and the gamma S crystallin gene) in different breeds comprising Bos taurus cattle of Europe and Africa, Bos indicus of West and East Africa, as well as the Brahman of Martinique and the Creole crossbred of Guadeloupe. By comparing the different allele frequencies of these 5 non related polymorphic loci and by using the two different mathematical matrices of NEI and of CAVALLI-SFORZA, have been established the genetic distances between these breeds. It appears clearly that the Creole cattle of Guadeloupe are in an intermediate position between the Bos taurus N'Dama breed of West Africa and two Bos indicus zebu breeds, namely the West African Sudan zebu and the Brahman. Thanks to studies of different archieves in the Caribbean and in Europe, historical evidence have been accumulated on the geographical origins and on the chronology of the establishment of Creole and Brahman cattle in the French West Indies. The high resistance of the Creole cattle of Guadeloupe to diseases associated with or transmitted by the "Senegalese" tick Amblyomma variegatum seems to be due to the inheritance of a pool of genes from West African cattle and more particularly from the N'Dama breed.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) | ||
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| "Epidemiological studies on dermatophilosis in the Caribbean." | ||
| Martinez, D., G. Aumont, et al. | 1993 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 46(1-2): 323-7. |
| Dermatophilosis is one of the most important diseases of domestic ruminants in the Caribbean islands where the clinical disease has been shown to be associated with the presence of the tick Amblyomma variegatum. Seroepidemiological studies were conducted to clarify the epidemiology of the disease in the region with a particular attention paid to the role of A. variegatum. A bank of 1300 cattle sera from the Lesser Antilles was screened by ELISA for the presence of antibodies to Dermatophilus congolensis. It appeared that seropositive animals do exist in islands non infested by A. variegatum and where dermatophilosis is never or seldom seen. Moreover, there was no significant difference in prevalence of seropositive animals between tick-infested and non infested areas of Martinique and Saint Lucia, 2 islands partly infested by the tick, and where dermatophilosis is only seen in tick-infested areas. Prevalence was low in small islands with a dry climate. This confirms experimental data showing that A. variegatum is not necessary for the transmission of D. congolensis which is widespread in most of the islands. High concentrations of prostaglandin E2 (between 151 and 377 ng/ml) and prostacyclin (between 124 and 134 ng/ml) found in the saliva of females A. variegatum strongly suggest that the tick could favour the development of the lesions through an immunomodulating activity of its saliva. However, despite some success in reproducing dermatophilosis on goats simultaneously infested with adult A. variegatum and scarified with Dermatophilus, no difference was observed between naturally resistant Creole cattle and very susceptible Brahman animals using the same model. The lesions of dermatophilosis remained very mild on animals of both breeds.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) | ||
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| "Observations on a dermatophilosis outbreak in Brahman cattle in Guadeloupe. Description, epidemiological and economical aspects." | ||
| Naves, M., F. Vallee, et al. | 1993 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 46(1-2): 297-302. |
| A severe outbreak of dermatophilosis occurred in 1985 in a herd of Brahman cows imported from Martinique in Guadeloupe in July 1983. Little was known on this disease in Guadeloupe until then, for the local zebu breed is naturally highly resistant to diseases transmitted by ticks or associated with them. Conditions of appearance and development of the disease were studied in relation with herd management, climate and treatments applied. There was no evidence of the disease during the first 6 months following the importation, in a feedlot management. The first lesions of dermatophilosis appeared about 2 months after the animals were allowed to graze on pastures infested with ticks. Then, thirty percent of the herd became infected. Development of the infection increased dramatically as the humid season approached, and all the 29 Brahman cows showed lesions in July 1985. Only drastic treatments, including antibiotics and local disinfection, associated with the removal from pastures into covered stables allowed the recovery from the disease. Nevertheless, the disease caused the death of 13 head. Differences in individual reactions were also noted, and 7 different types of evolution were identified. These observations provided informations about the epidemiology of dermatophilosis in the climatic conditions of Caribbean humid tropics. They showed the economic importance of this severe disease for cattle in the region and the sensitivity of exotic breeds. | ||
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| "Amblyomma variegatum and associated diseases in the Caribbean: strategies for control and eradication in Guadeloupe." | ||
| Camus, E. and N. Barre | 1990 | Parassitologia 32(1): 185-93. |
| Amblyomma variegatum, introduced into Guadelopue 150 years ago, has recently spread in the Lesser Antilles and threatens North America. Two important diseases are associated with the tick: heartwater and dermatophilosis. Heartwater occurs in Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante and Antigua; acute dermatophilosis exists almost everywhere the tick is present. Both are very pathogenic for upgraded or newly-infested cattle. After 15 years of A. variegatum control in Guadeloupe, a balance is established between a tick population maintained at a low level by spraying acaricides and an animal population either completely resistant to heartwater and dermatophilosis (creole cattle) or regularly treated against ticks (upgraded cattle). An eradication campaign against A. variegatum in Guadeloupe, to avoid the spread of the associated diseases, appears technically difficult but possible, economically profitable, but socially completely utopian. We suggest for Guadeloupe a reinforced control of the tick with a persistent acaricide, hoping that a general decrease of the tick infestation rate on cattle will eliminate heartwater and acute dermatophilosis. | ||
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| "Spreading of the tick Amblyomma variegatum in the West Indies: how can this serious menace be explained and what should be done?." | ||
| Uilenberg, G. | 1990 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 43(3): 297-9. |
| The author presents a brief history of the introduction and extension of the African tick Amblyomma variegatum in the Caribbean. The tick is particularly dangerous for the livestock industry because of its role as a vector of heartwater and its association with severe dermatophilosis. It is already distributed in the Lesser Antilles from Puerto Rico to Barbados and St. Vincent. The chronology of its sudden unexplained expansion since the 1960s corresponds well with the multiplication of the cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) in the region, while the tick had hardly extended its distribution during more than 130 years, before this African bird arrived in the western hemisphere. These birds are often infested with larvae of the tick and carry out important movements between islands. The imminent invasion of the American continent appears unavoidable, with incalculable disastrous consequences for the livestock industry, unless the tick is rapidly eradicated from all infested islands. While presenting practical, human and social problems, eradication from the islands is technically feasible and its cost/benefit ratio is very positive. | ||
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| "Dermatophilus congolensis bovine dermatophilosis in the French West Indies. III. A comparison between infected and non-infected cattle." | ||
| Matheron, G., N. Barre, et al. | 1989 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 42(3): 331-47. |
| The determination of the distinctive features between infected and uninfected cattle by Dermatophilus has been performed among 93 bovine stock in La Martinique, and 120 in La Guadeloupe and Saint-Martin Islands. Nearly half of the herds had been or were infected. Morbidity rates reach 33 per cent in La Martinique and 29 per cent in La Guadeloupe with a mortality ratio of 15 per cent and 5 per cent respectively. No frequency difference could be observed with respect to the season or the geographical area. Similarly, differences are little or nil as regards animal exposure toward aggressive factors such as sun, soil moisture, thorns, etc. On the other hand, the presence of Amblyomma variegatum is a determining factor considering the prevailing situation in La Martinique, where all breeds of cattle are sensitive to the disease. In this case, 63 per cent of the tick infested cattle develops dermatophilosis versus 2.5 per cent for the still uninfected animals. Conversely, in La Guadeloupe were Creole zebus are highly resistant (as a consequence of their natural selection), only 27 per cent of the infected stock suffers from this illness. In these two islands, regular dipping measures have proved to be beneficial in that it reduces the disease frequency. The study also reveals an underlying typology of the various rearing systems, thus allowing their classification as for their behaviour and response when meeting illness. In La Martinique, whatever they may be, quite none of them is infected in the tick free area. In the tick infested zones, the traditional small breeders rearing a sensitive cattle and who do not care with prophylactic rules, are mostly stricken, while more structured ones have succeeded in controlling the disease, owning to some appropriate measures together with a fair animal management. On the other hand, in La Guadeloupe where this tick is cosmopolitan, the small breeders who run a resistant Creole cattle, are not concerned, despite a rudimentary prophylactic behaviour. Conversely, the intensive rearing system, based upon improved imported breeds, meets great difficulties to master the infection. | ||
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| "Cattle Dermatophilus congolensis dermatophilosis in the French West Indies. I. Characteristics of the lesions and serologic response." | ||
| Barre, N., G. Matheron, et al. | 1988 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 41(2): 129-38. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Dermatophilus congolensis dermatophilosis in cattle in the French West Indies. II. Susceptibility related to the animals." | ||
| Barre, N., G. Matheron, et al. | 1988 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 41(4): 339-45. |
| No abstract available | ||
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Anaplasmosis and Babesiosis | ||
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| "Integrated control of Boophilus microplus ticks in Cuba based on vaccination with the anti-tick vaccine Gavac." | ||
| Valle, M. R., L. Mendez, et al. | 2004 | Exp Appl Acarol 34(3-4): 375-82. |
| Boophilus microplus has developed resistance against a range of chemical acaricides which has stimulated the development of alternative methods such as vaccination against ticks. In Cuba, the Bm86-based recombinant vaccine Gavac has been successfully used in a number of controlled laboratory and field trials in cattle against B. microplus. In this paper, we have evaluated Gavac in a large scale field trial wherein 588,573 dairy cattle were vaccinated with the aim to reduce the number of acaricidal treatments. It was found that the number of acaricidal treatments could be reduced by 87% over a period of 8 years (1995--2003). Prior to the introduction of the vaccine, 54 clinical cases of babesiosis and six fatal cases were reported per 1000 animals. Six years later, the incidence of babesiosis was reduced to 1.9 cases per 1000 cattle and mortality reduced to 0.18 per 1000. The national consumption of acaricides in Cuba could be reduced by 82% after the implementation of the integrated anti-B. microplus control program. | ||
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| "Field studies and cost-effectiveness analysis of vaccination with Gavac against the cattle tick Boophilus microplus." | ||
| de la Fuente, J., M. Rodriguez, et al. | 1998 | Vaccine 16(4): 366-73. |
| The control of tick infestations and the transmission of tick-borne diseases remains a challenge for the cattle industry in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Traditional control methods have been only partially successful and the parasites continue to result in significant losses for the cattle industry. Recently, vaccines containing the recombinant Boophilus microplus gut antigen Bm86 have been developed. These vaccines have been shown to control tick infestations in the field. However, extensive field studies investigating the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of vaccination have not been reported and are needed to appraise the effect of this new approach for tick control. Here is reported the results of the application of Gavac in a field trial including more than 260,000 animals in Cuba. In this study the correlation between the antibody response to vaccination and the effect on ticks fertility is determined. Physiological status of the animals was found to affect the primary response to vaccination but not the antibody titers after revaccination. A cost-effectiveness analysis showed a 60% reduction in the number acaricide treatments, together with the control of tick infestations and transmission of babesiosis, which resulted in savings of $23.4 animal-1 year-1. These results clearly demonstrate the advantage of vaccination and support the application of Gavac for tick control. | ||
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| "Puerto Rico tick program. Potential conversion to an integrated pest management program." | ||
| Bokma, B. H. | 1996 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 791: 94-9. |
| No abstract available | ||
| Top | ||
| "Vector situation of tick-borne diseases in the Caribbean Islands." | ||
| Camus, E. and N. Barre | 1995 | Vet Parasitol 57(1-3): 167-76. |
| The most important ticks transmitting diseases to ruminants in the Caribbean islands are: Amblyomma variegatum, vector of cowdriosis and associated with acute dermatophilosis; Amblyomma cajennense, potential vector of cowdriosis; Boophilus microplus, vector of babesiosis and anaplasmosis. At the present time, Amblyomma variegatum is widespread in the Lesser Antilles from Barbados to Puerto Rico. The intensity of the tick control program varies in the different islands and the tick infestation in each island ranges from limited foci to widespread infestations. The vector situation appeared stable since 1988 in the Lesser Antilles but the outbreak in 1992 in Puerto Rico emphasized the risk of spread to other islands and to the American mainland, particularly with cattle egrets. Cowdriosis remains apparently limited to Guadeloupe and Antigua. Amblyomma cajennense, experimental vector of cowdriosis, is present in Cuba, Jamaica and Trinidad but also in most American countries. Boophilus microplus is widespread throughout the Caribbean. Its presence and importance are often indirectly estimated by the clinical and serological diagnosis of babesiosis and anaplasmosis. There is no correlation between the intensity of Amblyomma variegatum control in each island of the Lesser Antilles and the effect on the Boophilus microplus population measured by the seroprevalence to babesiosis and anaplasmosis, but within the island of Martinique a regular Amblyomma variegatum control decreases the seroprevalences to babesiosis and anaplasmosis. | ||
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| "Bovine anaplasmosis and babesiosis in the Lesser Antilles: risk assessment of an unstable epidemiologic situation." | ||
| Camus, E. and S. Montenegro-James | 1994 | Vet Res 25(2-3): 313-7. |
| A seroepidemiological survey on tick-borne diseases of ruminants was carried out on 11 islands of the Lesser Antilles from Grenada to St Martin. A total of 1,795 cattle were randomly sampled and sera tested for antibodies to anaplasmosis (Anaplasma marginale) and babesiosis (Babesia bovis and B bigemina) using a dot-ELISA test. Except for anaplasmosis, which was virtually absent from Guadeloupe, the seroprevalence of the 3 tick-borne diseases ranged from 18 to 71%. The epidemiologic situation was considered to be unstable in all of the study sites. The risk of clinical outbreaks was high in all the islands except for B bigemina in Montserrat and St Lucia and B bovis in St Lucia. The practical consequences in terms of tick eradication, tick control, and vaccination are discussed. | ||
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| "A survey of goat and cattle diseases in the Artibonite Valley, Haiti, West Indies." | ||
| Veit, H. P., F. McCarthy, et al. | 1993 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 46(1-2): 27-38. |
| A 40 week study of 43 farmers, 60 goats and 60 cattle was conducted in order to identify abnormal conditions or diseases and predisposing seasonal, managemental or nutritional factors. Farms were visited, farmers interviewed and animals examined up to 4 times, about every 10 weeks, and bled for Ht, total WBC, selected serum vitamins and minerals, hair collected for mineral analysis. Soil and forages were collected for analysis. Animals were generally in fair condition, with poor growth and reproduction. Unexpected wet season caloric deficiency, severe P deficiency and lesser vit. A and E deficiencies were noted. Anaemia, secondary to parasitism, was common to both species, worse in goats. Cattle had ticks, while goats had lice. Goats had reported neonatal diarrhea and mortality; observed exfoliative dermatitis, warts, dermatophytosis and possible contagious ecthyma. Cattle had reported anthrax and babesiosis; observed vesicular vaginitis, orchitis and teat warts. | ||
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| "Epidemiology of bovine anaplasmosis and babesiosis in Latin America and the Caribbean." | ||
| Alonso, M., C. Arellano-Sota, et al. | 1992 | Rev Sci Tech 11(3): 713-33. |
| The various parameters which interact in the epizootiology of babesiosis and anaplasmosis and which it is necessary to obtain in a survey are analysed and the two diseases compared. Where no data are available from Latin America and the Caribbean, the references from Australia and the United States of America are discussed. The two principal objectives of a study on the epidemiology of babesiosis and anaplasmosis are: to determine the risk of occurrence to understand the relevant factors leading to outbreaks. The first objective is relatively simple to achieve for both diseases by calculating the animal inoculation rate (h) at a determined age and the critical value of h for enzootic stability. The second objective requires exhaustive and complex studies. For babesiosis epidemiology, studies of the tick infection rate, cattle infestation rate, genetic composition of cattle, acaricides, stocking rate, climatic data and other factors are necessary. Anaplasmosis epidemiology cannot be satisfactorily explained by considering it purely as a tick-borne disease. Difficulties to be overcome include the great diversity of haematophagous Diptera in Latin America, and the scarcity of data on the capacity of these insects as anaplasmosis vectors and their feed preferences on cattle. | ||
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| "Current status of bovine haemoparasitic diseases in Martinique (French West Indies)." | ||
| Alonso, M., E. Camus, et al. | 1992 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 45(1): 9-14. |
| A serological survey using indirect immunofluorescence (IFAT) for bovine babesiosis (Babesia bovis and B. bigemina) and card test for anaplasmosis, indicates that these haemoparasites are widespread in Martinique. The high prevalences (62% for B. bovis, 52% for B. bigemina and 43% for Anaplasma marginale) lead to the hypothesis of an unstable epizootic situation for these three haemoparasitic diseases. However, the number of smears examined was too low to evaluate their clinical incidence. Both the American and Cuban card tests gave similar results in the detection of antibodies to A. marginale. Theileria mutans is described for the first time in Martinique. Trypanosomosis (Trypanosoma vivax) has disappeared from Martinique, on clinical and serological evidence. | ||
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| "Detection of Babesia bigemina infection: use of a DNA probe--a review." | ||
| Buening, G. M. and J. V. Figueroa | 1992 | Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 87 Suppl 3: 207-11. |
| The development of a repetitive DNA probe for Babesia bigemina was reviewed. The original plasmid (p(Bbi)16) contained an insert of B. bigemina DNA of approximately 6.3 kb. This probe has been evaluated for specificity and analytical sensitivity by dot blot hybridization with isolates from Mexico, the Caribbean region and Kenya. A partial restriction map has been constructed and insert fragments have been subcloned and utilized as specific DNA probes. A comparison of 32P labelled and non-radioactive DNA probes was presented. Non-radioactive detection systems that have been used include digoxigenin dUTP incorporation, and detection by colorimetric substrate methods. Derivatives from the original DNA probe have been utilized to detect B. bigemina infection in a) experimentally inoculated cattle, b) field exposed cattle, c) infected Boophilus microplus ticks, and d) the development of a PCR amplification system. | ||
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| "Bovine babesiosis on Nevis - implications for tick control." | ||
| Hadrill, D. J., R. Boid, et al. | 1990 | Vet Rec 126(16): 403-4. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Bovine Babesia bigemina seroreactors in Jamaica." | ||
| McGinnis, B., G. Grant, et al. | 1989 | Trop Anim Health Prod 21(4): 227-8. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Seroprevalence of anaplasmosis and babesiosis in livestock on St Lucia, 1983." | ||
| Hugh-Jones, M. E., K. Scotland, et al. | 1988 | Trop Anim Health Prod 20(3): 137-9. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Bovine anaplasmosis in Jamaica." | ||
| McGinnis, B., J. Zingeser, et al. | 1988 | Trop Anim Health Prod 20(1): 42-4. |
| No abstract available | ||
| Top | ||
| "Bovine haemoparasitic diseases in Jamaica." | ||
| Bundy, D. A., G. A. Hylton, et al. | 1983 | Trop Anim Health Prod 15(1): 47-8. |
| No abstract available | ||
| Top | ||
| "Clinical and serological evidence of bovine babesiosis and anaplasmosis in St. Lucia." | ||
| Knowles, R. T., M. Montrose, et al. | 1982 | Vet Parasitol 10(4): 307-11. |
| One hundred fifty-nine Holstein calves were imported into St. Lucia from the U.S.A. An outbreak of babesiosis occurred 17 days post-arrival, and an outbreak of anaplasmosis occurred 5 months after importation. Sera obtained 3, 6, and 12 months post-importation revealed a high prevalence of IFA titres to Babesia bovis and B. Bigemina 3 months after arrival and an increase in titres to Anaplasma marginale 6 months after arrival. Sera obtained from native cattle from several places on the island indicated infection rates of 80, 65 and 64% with A. marginale, B. bigemina and B. bovis, respectively. The rapid card test only indicated a 25% prevalence of infection of native cattle by A. marginale. This low prevalence was probably due to deterioration of serological activity during shipment. | ||
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Salmonellosis | ||
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| "Ceftazidime-resistant Salmonella enteritidis in Jamaica." | ||
| Saunders, G., N. Bodonaik, et al. | 2005 | West Indian Med J 54(4): 268-9. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Presence of Salmonella as a risk to public health in the Caribbean zone of Colombia." | ||
| Durango, J., G. Arrieta, et al. | 2004 | Biomedica 24(1): 89-96. |
| Salmonella is frequently involved in diarrhoeal disease throughout the world and is disseminated mainly by food, polluted waters or infected food-handlers. In Colombia, the serotypes of Salmonella and their distribution in food have not been characterized. Therefore, the objective was to establish the epidemiology of Salmonella in the Caribbean zone. Six hundred thirty-six samples were obtained in fast food outlets located in city squares or markets of Barranquilla (n=245), Monteria (n=222), Sincelejo (n=87) and Cartagena (n=82). Salmonella was isolated by the conventional methods recommended by the United States Food and Drug Administration. Briefly, 25 g of each sample was inoculated in 225 ml of broth. Twenty-four hours later, a 1 ml aliquot was inoculated onto selective media for Salmonella. Suspicious colonies were identified by conventional biochemical tests and confirmed by conventional serology for Salmonella detection. Forty-seven Salmonella serotypes were isolated from meat (40%), sausage (25%), cheese (13%), pig (13%), chicken (4.2%) and egg 'arepas' (4.2%). The serologic characterization indicated the following serotypes: S. Anatum (26%), S. Newport (13%), S. Typhimurium (9%), S. Gaminara (9%) and S. Uganda (9%). No statistically significant Salmonella isolations among 4 socioeconomic categories were observed (p=0.05). However, differences were observed when rates were compared for Salmonella by food type for socioeconomic categories 1, 2 and 3 (p<0.05), categories 2 and 3 did not show differences between them (p>0.05). | ||
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| "Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella spp. in non-diarrhoeic dogs in Trinidad." | ||
| Seepersadsingh, N., A. A. Adesiyun, et al. | 2004 | J Vet Med B Infect Dis Vet Public Health 51(7): 337-42. |
| The estimated prevalence and antimicrobial resistances of Salmonella spp. in non-diarrhoeic dogs across Trinidad was determined. The serotypes of Salmonella spp. isolated were also identified. Of a total of 1391 dogs sampled, 50 (3.6%) were positive for Salmonella spp. with 28 different serotypes, the predominant serotypes were Javiana (12), Newport (6), Arechavaleta (5) and Heidelberg (5). Fifty-seven (85.1%) of 67 isolates exhibited resistance to one or more antimicrobial agents. Of eight antimicrobial agents tested, resistance was exhibited to streptomycin (80.6%), cephalothin (37.3%), neomycin (38.8%) and gentamicin (9.0%). All isolates were sensitive to ampicillin, norfloxacin, choramphenicol and sulphamethoxazole/trimethoprim. It was concluded that the isolation of the Salmonella spp. from non-diarrhoeic dogs could pose health hazard to their owners as most serotypes are known to be virulent. Furthermore, the prevalence of resistance to antimicrobial agents amongst the Salmonella isolates from these animals indicates susceptibility testing may influence chemotherapeutic choices when treating these isolates. | ||
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| "Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella spp. in pet mammals, reptiles, fish aquarium water, and birds in Trinidad." | ||
| Seepersadsingh, N. and A. A. Adesiyun | 2003 | J Vet Med B Infect Dis Vet Public Health 50(10): 488-93. |
| The prevalence of Salmonella spp. was determined in 970 animals comprising 423 pet birds, 485 fish aquaria water and 62 other pets (40 pet mammals, 14 reptiles, eight others - crustaceans, snail, stingray) from both pet shops and households throughout Trinidad. The serotypes of Salmonella spp. isolated were identified and the resistance to various antimicrobial agents was determined. Overall nine (0.9%) of 970 pet animals were positive for Salmonella spp. Six isolates of Salmonella spp. were recovered from all pet birds with two isolates of serotype Aberdeen and one isolate each of Thompson, Rubislaw, Panama and Newport. The prevalence of Salmonella spp. in birds was 0.9%. Four isolates of Salmonella spp. were recovered from fish aquaria water, serotypes included Panama (two isolates), Newport (one isolate) and Virchow (one isolate). Prevalence of Salmonella spp. from fish aquaria was 0.4%. No isolate of Salmonella spp. was detected in pet mammals sampled while two isolates were recovered from reptiles, S. Enteritidis and S. Montevideo. One isolate of Salmonella spp. was recovered from a stingray, serotype unknown. Antimicrobial resistance was present is all animal types. The highest prevalence of resistance was to streptomycin among isolates from birds (83.3%) and other pets (100.0%) while isolates from fish aquarium water exhibited comparatively high resistance to cephalothin (50.0%). It was concluded that the isolation of Salmonella spp. from apparently healthy birds, fish aquarium water and other pet animals may pose a health risk to their owners and contacts as all serotypes are known to be potentially pathogenic depending on the oral dosage of the organism and the immune status of those in contact. The high prevalence of resistance to antimicrobial agents among Salmonella isolates across pet species may pose chemotherapeutic consequences to their owners and contacts. | ||
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| "A longitudinal study on enteropathogenic infections of livestock in Trinidad." | ||
| Adesiyun, A. A., J. S. Kaminjolo, et al. | 2001 | Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 34(1): 29-35. |
| A longitudinal study was conducted on selected livestock farms to determine the prevalence of enteropathogens in diarrhoeic and non-diarrhoeic animals. The enteropathogens assayed from faecal samples and rectal swabs were bacteria (Escherichia coli, Campylobacter spp. Salmonella spp. and Yersinia enterocolitica), parasites (coccidia, gastrointestinal nematodes and Cryptosporidium spp.) and viruses (group A rotavirus and parvovirus). The prevalence of the enteropathogens in various animal species was related to age and month of the year. Generally, younger animals presented a higher prevalence of infection by enteropathogens than older animals while most infections occurred between the months of January and April. | ||
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| "Emergence of Salmonella enteritidis phage type 4 in the Caribbean: case-control study in Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies." | ||
| Indar-Harrinauth, L., N. Daniels, et al. | 2001 | Clin Infect Dis 32(6): 890-6. |
| A prospective case-control study involving 46 case patients and 92 age- and neighborhood-matched control subjects was conducted in Trinidad and Tobago (T&T) between March 1998 and May 1999 to determine the etiology, sources, and risk factors for Salmonella enteritidis (SE) infection. SE infection in T&T was found to be associated with the consumption of shell eggs, and in particular raw or undercooked eggs. SE isolates from 30 (88%) of 34 patients and from 9 implicated egg or egg-containing food samples were phage type 4. Homemade eggnog and ice cream, cake batter, and egg-containing beverages were the main raw egg-containing foods, reflecting the cultural practices of the people of T&T. Public health education on the risks of eating raw or undercooked eggs, thorough cooking of all egg dishes, and refrigeration of shell eggs and egg dishes; studies tracing infected eggs to their sources; and testing of flocks of layer chickens for SE are needed to reduce the incidence of this infection. | ||
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| "Retrospective and longitudinal study of salmonellosis in captive wildlife in Trinidad. " | ||
| Gopee, N. V., A. A. Adesiyun, et al. | 2000 | J Wildl Dis 36(2): 284-93. |
| Morbidity and mortality of captive wildlife at the Emperor Valley Zoo, Trinidad from 1993 to 1996 were analysed to determine involvement of Salmonella spp. A 6 mo longitudinal study was conducted to determine the frequency of isolation of Salmonella spp. from apparently healthy, sick and dead wild mammals, birds, and reptiles. The antibiograms of Salmonella isolates were determined using the disc diffusion method. Fecal samples randomly selected from animal enclosures and cloacal swabs of snakes were cultured for Salmonella spp. following enrichment in tetrathionate and selenite cystine broths. For the 1993-96 period, Salmonella spp. was implicated in 17 (12%) of 141 sick or dead animals and the predominant serotype was S. typhimurium. During the 6 mo prospective study in a mean animal population of 1,186, there were 20 (2%) and 14 (1%) animals that were sick and died respectively; Salmonella spp. was implicated in only one mortality. Overall, of 1,012 samples from apparently healthy wildlife cultured, 66 (7%) yielded 24 serotypes of Salmonella. The predominant serotype were S. seigburg (16 isolates), S. gaminara (6 isolates), and S. thompson (6 isolates). None of the samples yielded S. typhimurium. The frequency of isolation of Salmonella spp. in reptiles (14%) was significantly higher than found in either mammals (7%) or birds (3%). Sixty-five (99%) of 66 Salmonella spp. isolates exhibited resistance to one or more of the nine antimicrobial agents tested. Resistance was high to cephalothin (92%), moderate to streptomycin (35%) and tetracycline (29%), but significantly low to gentamicin (2%), chloramphenicol (0%), and sulphamethoxazole/trimethoprim (0%). The prevalence of asymptomatic infections by Salmonella spp. in zoo animals was high and the very high prevalence of antimicrobial resistance could be a problem when treating salmonellosis. | ||
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| "Microbial quality of oysters sold in Western Trinidad and potential health risk to consumers." | ||
| Rampersad, F. S., S. Laloo, et al. | 1999 | Epidemiol Infect 123(2): 241-50. |
| The prevalence and characteristics of Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. as well as counts of E. coli in raw oysters, condiments/spices, and raw oyster cocktails sampled from 72 vendors across Western Trinidad were determined. The microbial quality of the water used in the preparation of raw oysters was also investigated. Of 200 samples each of raw oysters, condiments/spices and oyster cocktails tested, 154 (77.0%), 89 (44.5%) and 154 (77.0%) respectively yielded E. coli. The differences were statistically significant (P = < 0.001; chi square = 62.91). The mean E. coli count per g in the ready-to-eat oyster cocktail ranged from 1.5 x 10(3) +/- 2.7 x 10(3) in Couva to 8.7x10(6) +/- 4.9x10(7) in San Fernando. One hundred and forty-six (73.0%) oyster cocktails contaminated with E. coli had counts that exceeded the recommended standard of 16 per g. Of a total of 590 E. coli isolates from various sources tested, 24 (4.1%), 20 (3.4%) and 69 (11.7%) were mucoid, haemolytic and non-sorbitol fermenters respectively. Twelve (2.0%) isolates of E. coli were O157 strains, while 92 (46.0%) of 200 E. coli isolates tested belonged to enteropathogenic serogroups. Ninety (45.0%) and 73 (36.5%) of 200 water samples contained total coliforms and faecal coliforms respectively, with counts that exceeded 2.2 coliforms per 100 ml. Salmonella spp. were isolated from 7 (3.5%), 1 (0.5%) and 2 (1.0%) of 200 samples each, of raw oysters, condiments/spices and oyster cocktails respectively. Oysters pose a health risk to consumers in Trinidad, particularly from colibacillosis and salmonellosis, and the need for increased public awareness of this hazard cannot be over-emphasized. | ||
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| "Prevalence of Salmonella and Campylobacter species in animals at Emperor Valley Zoo, Trinidad." | ||
| Adesiyun, A. A., K. Caesar, et al. | 1998 | J Zoo Wildl Med 29(2): 237-9. |
| The prevalence of Salmonella and thermophilic Campylobacter species in animals kept at the Emperor Valley Zoo, Trinidad, was determined. Of the 433 animals from a total of 30 species sampled, 28 (6.5%) and 11 (2.5%) were positive for Salmonella and Campylobacter, respectively. The difference was statistically significant (P < or = 0.001: chi2). Overall, 12 stereotypes of Salmonella were isolated, with S. miami accounting for eight (25.8%) of 31 isolates. All Campylobacter isolates were C. jejuni, with nine (81.8%) of 11 isolates originating from birds. Reptiles had a high prevalence of Salmonella infection with a high probability for salmonellosis, but the risk of campylobacteriosis appears to be very low. | ||
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| "Some bacterial enteropathogens in wildlife and racing pigeons from Trinidad." | ||
| Adesiyun, A. A., N. Seepersadsingh, et al. | 1998 | J Wildl Dis 34(1): 73-80. |
| Fecal and cloacal swabs or feces of wild mammalian, avian and reptilian species, either farmed or free-ranging, and of racing pigeons (Columba livia) kept in lofts were cultured for Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., and Yersinia spp. Of 291 free-ranging mammals tested, 6 (2%) and 1 (< 1%) yielded positive cultures of Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp., respectively. Salmonella newport was the predominant serotype isolated and the opossum (Didelphis marsupialis insularis) had the significantly highest prevalence (29%) of Salmonella spp. infection compared to other species such as deer (Mazama americana trinitatis), lappe (Agouti paca), tattoo (Dasypus novemcinctus), agouti (Dasyprocta leporina), and wild hog (Tayassu tajacu). Among 14 species of farmed wildlife studied, 13 (7%) and 10 (5%) of 184 fecal or cloacal samples tested were positive for Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp., respectively. Salmonella javiana accounted for 50% of the Salmonella spp. isolates and C. jejuni represented 90% of the Campylobacter spp. cultured. Only 1 (1%) of 124 cloacal swabs of free-flying avian species yielded Salmonella spp. compared to 21 (17%) samples positive for Campylobacter spp. Of 171 racing pigeons which originated from 8 fanciers, 8 (5%) yielded Salmonella spp. all of which were serotype typhimurium while only 1 (1%) was positive for Campylobacter spp. Seven (88%) of 8 Salmonella spp. isolates were recovered from one fancier. Yersinia spp. was not cultured from any of the above samples. Although the prevalences of Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. in wildlife in Trinidad are low, the practice of wildlife farming and the increased consumption of meat from wildlife may increase the health risk to human consumers. | ||
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| "Salmonellosis in Trinidad: evidence for transovarian transmission of Salmonella in farm eggs." | ||
| Indar, L., G. Baccus-Taylor, et al. | 1998 | West Indian Med J 47(2): 50-3. |
| The aim of this study was to determine whether the contents of farm eggs in Trinidad are contaminated with Salmonella and if transovarian transmission occurs. 750 fresh eggs from 10 farms supplying 75% of the country's eggs were cultured for Salmonella. Salmonella was found on the egg shells' surfaces from all farms, and in the egg contents from three farms. Isolates were obtained from the cultures of the contents and shells of nine (1.2%) and 35 (4.66%) eggs, respectively (p < 0.005). Serotypes found in the contents were S. enteritidis (0.8%; deduced to be contaminated by transovarian transmission) and S. typhimurium (0.4%); those isolated from the shells (contaminated by faecal transmission) were S. typhimurium (3.06%), S. enteritidis (0.67%), S. ohio (0.27%), S. cerro (0.27%), S. infantis (0.27%) and S. heidelberg (0.13%). This study provides the first evidence for Salmonella and, more importantly, S. enteritidis, in eggs in Trinidad. This is of major public health significance because S. enteritidis infected eggs appear normal and the organism is difficult to detect and control. The consumption of these eggs may increase the risk of Salmonella infection. Food safety practices, particularly the thorough cooking (> or = 70 degrees C) of all egg dishes and the refrigeration (< 10 degrees C) of shell eggs and egg dishes, are recommended. | ||
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| "Prevalence of bacterial enteropathogens in pet dogs in Trinidad." | ||
| Adesiyun, A. A., M. Campbell, et al. | 1997 | Zentralbl Veterinarmed B 44(1): 19-27. |
| The rectal swabs of diarrhoeic and apparently healthy non-diarrhoeic dogs presented to a Small Animal Clinic were cultured for Escherichia coli, Salmonella and Campylobacter and the enteropathogens were characterized. Overall, of 130 dogs divided equally into two groups consisting of 65 diarrhoeic and 65 non-diarrhoeic dogs, 99 (76.2%), 6 (4.6%) and 18 (13.8%) were positive for E. coli, Salmonella and Campylobacter, respectively. The differences were statistically significant (P < or = 0.05; chi 2). The prevalences of the enteropathogens in diarrhoeic and non-diarrhoeic dogs were not statistically significant (P > or = 0.05; chi 2). Diarrhoea was significantly (P < or = 0.01; chi 2) more prevalent in dogs less than 6 months of age and 7 months to 1 year old than in dogs older than 1 year. The prevalences of Salmonella, E. coli and enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) strains were not significantly (P > or = 0.05; chi 2) associated with age but the prevalence of Campylobacter infection was significantly (P < or = 0.01; chi 2) higher in dogs less than 1 year old (25.0%) than in older dogs (5.4%). Of 99 E. coli strains tested, three (3.0%), four (4.0%), five (5.1%) and 20 (20.2%) were haemolytic, non-sorbitol fermenters, verocytotoxigenic (VT) and EPEC strains, respectively. Resistance to tetracycline (59.6%) and ampicillin (50.5%) was most prevalent and significantly (P < or = 0.01; chi 2) higher than to six other antimicrobial agents. | ||
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| "Epidemiology of Salmonella infections in Trinidadian livestock farms." | ||
| Adesiyun, A. A., J. S. Kaminjolo, et al. | 1993 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 46(3): 435-7. |
| Faeces of 689 diarrhoeic and non-diarrhoeic livestock were examined for salmonellae and the antibiograms of isolates were determined. Twenty-nine (4.2%) animals were positive for Salmonella. The highest prevalence was detected amongst calves with 14 (4.8%) of 293 found positive and the lowest prevalence in kids with none of 18 sampled shedding salmonellae. Twelve (4.1%) of 294 piglets and 3 (3.6%) of 84 lambs tested were positive for Salmonella. There were no statistical differences (P > or = 0.05; chi 2) between animal semi-intensively managed (4.4%) and those intensively kept (4.3%), between diarrhoeic (5.0%) and non-diarrhoeic (3.3%), between females (5.2%) and males (3.4%). Nine serotypes were isolated with a predominance of S. hadar, S. gaminara and S. typhimurium in calves, piglets and lambs, respectively. Two serotypes, S. kinshasa and S. virchow are reported for the first time in animals in the West Indies. All Salmonella strains were sensitive to ampicillin and gentamycin whereas resistance was high to tetracycline (40.0%), triple sulphur (30.0%) and streptomycin (26.7%). | ||
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| "Critical control points for foods prepared in households whose members had either alleged typhoid fever or diarrhea." | ||
| Michanie, S., F. L. Bryan, et al. | 1988 | Int J Food Microbiol 7(2): 123-34. |
| Hazard analysis of food preparation practices were conducted in four households and eleven others were visited to survey both food preparation practices and environmental conditions. Households selected had members who were suffering from either diarrhea of unknown etiology or alleged typhoid fever. Hazard analyses and sanitary surveys included gathering data on time-temperature exposures of foods, collecting samples of food and drinking water, sampling sewage or drains, and obtaining stool specimens from persons with diarrhea and from family controls. Food samples were tested for aerobic mesophilic colony counts and common foodborne pathogens; specimens were tested for Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter and Yersinia. Campylobacter was isolated from two persons purported to have diarrhea, but neither Salmonella, Shigella nor Yersinia were recovered from alleged cases or controls. Salmonella agona was recovered from a latrine. Most foods were cooked to internal temperatures to or near to boiling. Those not promptly eaten were held at ambient room or outside temperatures until a subsequent meal, until a family member returned home, or until lunch time when taken to the fields. During these intervals, microorganisms multiplied and mesophilic aerobic organisms increased often reaching 10(8)/g or greater before consumption. None of these foods were reheated before eating. Bacillus cereus was isolated from 4 of 10 samples; one sample of 'moro' (beans and rice) exceeded 10(6)/g, two other samples exceeded 10(3)/g. Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from 7 of 14 samples, one exceeded 10(5)/g. Fecal coliforms were isolated from 8 of 14 food samples, five exceeded 10(5)/g. Neither Salmonella nor Shigella were isolated from any food, the community water supplies or from vessels of water within houses. Fecal coliform counts of water were less than 3/ml, except one sample from a clay vessel (9/ml). Risks associated with cooked foods which were not promptly eaten appeared to be greater than that associated with water. | ||
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| "Turtle-associated salmonellosis in Puerto Rico. Hazards of the global turtle trade." | ||
| Tauxe, R. V., J. G. Rigau-Perez, et al. | 1985 | Jama 254(2): 237-9. |
| After the Puerto Rico Department of Health received a report of salmonellosis in an infant who had contact with a pet turtle, we conducted a case-control study in two urban areas in Puerto Rico to measure the extent of pet turtle-associated salmonellosis there. Ten (17%) of 60 infants with salmonellosis but none of their matched controls had a history of exposure to a pet turtle in the two weeks before onset of illness. Two other case patients were also exposed to a pet turtle--an 8-year-old child and an adult with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and Salmonella bacteremia. A variety of Salmonella serogroups were represented in the turtle-associated cases. All turtle lots collected from pet shops in Puerto Rico were culture-positive for Salmonella; 89% yielded Salmonella pomona. Contamination of the turtles probably occurred at the farm before distribution, since S pomona was also isolated from turtles exported from the same farm to Guam and to Yugoslavia. The estimated 3 to 4 million turtles exported annually from the United States are an important potential route for global dissemination of human salmonellosis. | ||
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| "Salmonella infection in market swine, Trinidad and Tobago." | ||
| Cazabon, E. P., M. P. Berment, et al. | 1978 | Bull Pan Am Health Organ 12(1): 51-4. |
| Salmonella organisms were isolated from samples of mesenteric lymph nodes taken from healthy market swine at an abattoir in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, on 36 different visits over a 12-month period. Of the 869 samples examined, 160, or 18,4%, were positive for Salmonella. A total of 19 serotypes were isolated of which S. agona was the most prevalent. The findings are compared with observations by other workers. | ||
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Food product hygiène | ||
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| "Prevalence of antimicrobial residues in table eggs in Trinidad." | ||
| Adesiyun, A., N. Offiah, et al. | 2005 | J Food Prot 68(7): 1501-5. |
| The prevalence of antimicrobial residues in pooled table eggs from layer farms, shopping malls, and supermarkets in Trinidad was determined. A total of 23 layer farms and 14 shopping malls were sampled twice, 1 month apart, whereas 102 supermarkets were each sampled once. For each farm, 25 eggs were randomly collected and pooled to constitute a composite sample, whereas six eggs from each farm source available at sale outlets were randomly sampled from malls and supermarkets to constitute a composite sample. Questionnaires were administered at the farms to determine the occurrence of risk factors for contamination of antimicrobial residues in eggs and at sale outlets to determine storage conditions. The Charm II test was used to qualitatively detect antimicrobial residues (beta-lactams, macrolides, sulfonamides, and tetracyclines). Of 46 composite eggs tested from farms, 3 (6.5%) were contaminated with residues compared with 5 (16.1%) of 31 and 16 (15.0%) of 107 mall and supermarket eggs, respectively, but the difference was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). The residues detected were as follows: sulfonamides, 12 (6.5%) of 184; macrolides, 7 (3.8%) of 184; tetracycline, 5 (2.7%) of 184; and beta-lactam, 0 (0.0%) of 184. The difference was statistically significant (P < 0.05). The use of medicated feeds on farm, claim of adherence to the antimicrobial withdrawal period, and temperature of egg storage did not significantly (P > 0.05) affect the prevalence of residues in eggs. It was concluded that the presence of antimicrobial residues, particularly sulfonamides, in table eggs could be of public health significance to the consumer. | ||
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| "Microbial health risk posed by table eggs in Trinidad." | ||
| Adesiyun, A., N. Offiah, et al. | 2005 | Epidemiol Infect 133(6): 1049-56. |
| A survey of the microbial quality of table eggs sold in Trinidad was conducted. For 23 poultry layer farms each visited twice approximately 1 month apart, 25 pooled eggs constituted a composite sample, for 14 shopping malls each visited twice approximately 1 month apart, six pooled eggs made a composite sample and for a total of 102 other retailers across the country each visited once over a 4-month period, six pooled eggs constituted a composite sample. Swabs of egg shells and egg content were tested for selected bacteria. Twenty-four (13.0%), 68 (37.0%), and two (1.1%) of a total of 184 composite eggs (shells, egg content or both) sampled were positive for Salmonella, Escherichia coli, and Campylobacter respectively. All 184 samples tested were negative for Listeria spp. Salmonella was recovered from seven (3.8%) egg shell samples only compared with 14 (7.6%) egg content samples only positive for the pathogen. Fifty-two (28.3%) egg shell samples and seven (3.8%) egg content samples were positive for E. coli. Both isolates of Campylobacter coli originated from egg contents. Of a total of 24 composite egg samples positive for Salmonella, eight different serotypes of Salmonella were isolated from a total of 24 Salmonella-positive composite eggs of which S. Enteritidis was the most prevalent, 58.3% (14/24). Salmonella Georgia was isolated for the first time in Trinidad. Failure to properly handle or heat table eggs sold in Trinidad poses a potential health hazard to consumers because of their poor microbial quality. | ||
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| "Evaluation of Antilles fish ciguatoxicity by mouse and chick bioassays." | ||
| Pottier, I. and J. P. Vernoux | 2003 | Bull Soc Pathol Exot 96(1): 24-8. |
| Ciguatera is a common seafood poisoning in Western Atlantic and French West Indies. Ciguatera fish poisoning in the Caribbean is a public health problem. A toxicological study was carried out on 178 Caribbean fish specimens (26 species) captured off Guadeloupe and Saint Barthelemy between 1993 and 1999. The mouse bioassay and the chick feeding test were used to control fish edibility. Ciguatoxins presence was assumed when symptomatology was typical of ciguatera in mouse and chick. Fishes were classified in three groups: non toxic fish (edible), low toxic fish (not edible) and toxic fish (not edible). 75% of fishes were non toxic. Toxic fish specimens belonged to four families of high trophic level carnivores: Carangidae, Lutjanidae, Serranidae et Sphyraenidae. Percentages of toxic fishes to humans reached 55% for Caranx latus and 33% for Caranx bartholomaei and Caranx lugubris. Only a significant correlation between weight and toxicity was only found for C. latus and snappers. Small carnivorous groupers (Serranidae) were also toxic. Atoxic fish species were (a) pelagic fish (Coryphaena hippurus, Auxis thazard and Euthynnus pelamis), (b) invertebrates feeders (Malacanthus plumieri, Balistes vetula), (c) small high-risk fish or (d) fish of edible benthic fish families. Liver of four fishes (Mycteroperca venenosa, Caranx bartholomaei, Seriola rivoliana, Gymnothorax funebris) contained ciguatoxins at a significant level although their flesh was safe. This study confirms the usefulness of mouse and chick bioassays for sanitary control of fish. | ||
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| "Determination of aflatoxin B1 in food and feedstuffs in Cuba (1990 through 1996) using an immunoenzymatic reagent kit (Aflacen)." | ||
| Escobar, A. and O. S. Regueiro | 2002 | J Food Prot 65(1): 219-21. |
| The presence of aflatoxin B1 was analyzed in imported food and feedstuffs of national production in the period of 1990 through 1996, destined to animal and human consumption using an immunoenzymatic reagent kit (Aflacen, Ckure, la Habana, Cuba) with a detection limit of 0.3 microg/kg. It was found that the 17.04% of a total of 4,594 analyzed samples presented aflatoxin B1, and the biggest percentages were in sorghum and peanut with an 83.3 and 40.4%, respectively. The corn, oat, wheat, and soy are fundamental raw ingredients in the elaboration of concentrates. Percentages of contamination with aflatoxin B1 of 23.3, 10.7, 25, and 4.6 were found in corn, oat, wheat, and soy, respectively. Other analyzed foods like rice, beans, and peas presented percentages of contamination with aflatoxin B1 inferior to 5% of the analyzed samples. It was found that more than 455 samples surpassed the value of 10 microg/kg. Corn and peanut products present a high demand in population showing levels of contamination superior to 50 microg/kg. The 11.3% of the samples contaminated with aflatoxin B1 have values between 1 and 20 microg/kg, where peanut and concentrates show the highest percentages (21.9 and 18.7), respectively. These results show levels of aflatoxin B1 in the population that constitute a great risk for human and animal health. | ||
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| "Ciguatera poisoning: a global issue with common management problems." | ||
| Ting, J. Y. and A. F. Brown | 2001 | Eur J Emerg Med 8(4): 295-300. |
| Ciguatera poisoning, a toxinological syndrome comprising an enigmatic mixture of gastrointestinal, neurocutaneous and constitutional symptoms, is a common food-borne illness related to contaminated fish consumption. As many as 50000 cases worldwide are reported annually, and the condition is endemic in tropical and subtropical regions of the Pacific Basin, Indian Ocean and Caribbean. Isolated outbreaks occur sporadically but with increasing frequency in temperate areas such as Europe and North America. Increase in travel between temperate countries and endemic areas and importation of susceptible fish has led to its encroachment into regions of the world where ciguatera has previously been rarely encountered. In the developed world, ciguatera poses a public health threat due to delayed or missed diagnosis. Ciguatera is frequently encountered in Australia. Sporadic cases are often misdiagnosed or not medically attended to, leading to persistent or recurrent debilitating symptoms lasting months to years. Without treatment, distinctive neurologic symptoms persist, occasionally being mistaken for multiple sclerosis. Constitutional symptoms may be misdiagnosed as chronic fatigue syndrome. A common source outbreak is easier to recognize and therefore notify to public health organizations. We present a case series of four adult tourists who developed ciguatera poisoning after consuming contaminated fish in Vanuatu. All responded well to intravenous mannitol. This is in contrast to a fifth patient who developed symptoms suggestive of ciguatoxicity in the same week as the index cases but actually had staphylococcal endocarditis with bacteraemia. In addition to a lack of response to mannitol, clinical and laboratory indices of sepsis were present in this patient. Apart from ciguatera, acute gastroenteritis followed by neurological symptoms may be due to paralytic or neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, scombroid and pufferfish toxicity, botulism, enterovirus 71, toxidromes and bacteraemia. Clinical aspects of ciguatera toxicity, its pathophysiology, diagnostic difficulties and epidemiology are discussed. | ||
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| "Bacteriological quality of raw oysters in Trinidad and the attitudes, knowledge and perceptions of the public about its consumption." | ||
| Lalo, S., F. S. Rampersa, et al. | 2000 | Int J Food Microbiol 54(1-2): 99-107. |
| In Trinidad and Tobago, raw oyster cocktails are a delicacy, but they are generally believed to be responsible for illness in the consumer. The microbial loads of raw oysters, condiments/spices and ready-to-consume oyster cocktails were determined in four sampling areas. Questionnaires were also administered to 72 oyster vendors to determine practices that affect the bacteriological quality of the products. Three hundred members of the public were interviewed to determine the attitudes, knowledge and perceptions of the public about raw oyster consumption. The mean total aerobic plate count (TAPC) per g of 50 samples each, of raw oysters, condiments/spices and ready-to-consume raw oyster cocktails averaged from 1.0 x 10(7)+/-4.3 x 10(7) to 1.4 x 10(8)+/-6.4 x 10(8), 2.0 x 10(5)+/-1.0 x 10(6) to 2.0 x 10(7)+/-1.4 x 10(8), and 4.3 x 10(5)+/-1.0 x 10(6) to 2.2 x 10(6)+/-1.0 x 10(7), respectively. The difference for each product among the four areas was statistically significant (P < or = 0.05; chi2). Using a recommended maximum standard of TAPC per g of 5.0 x 10(5), 115 (57.5%), 27 (13.5%) and 51 (25.5%) of 200 samples each, of raw oysters, condiments/spices and oyster cocktails, respectively, were considered unfit for human consumption. Amongst vendor practices, source of oyster harvest and length of time between separation of oyster meat from shell and sale, significantly affected the mean TAPC per g and the prevalence of unfit oyster cocktail samples. Consumption of raw oyster cocktails was more prevalent amongst males (73.6%) than females (26.4%) (P < 0.002), East Indians (63.2%) as compared with other respondents (36.8%) (P < 0.001), individuals < or = 40 years old (82.1%) than in individuals > 40 years of age (17.9%) (P < 0.01), and in individuals who were aware that raw oysters are considered to be a sexual enhancer (86.8%) as compared to those who did not have this perception (11.3%) (P < 0.03). Fear of falling ill prevented 44 (37.9%) of 116 non-consumers from eating oyster cocktails, while 13 of 106 consumers (12.3%) reported having experienced an oyster-borne illness. The rather high prevalence of raw oyster cocktails found to be unfit for human consumption, coupled with the perceptions and attitudes of the consumers about the product, pose a significant health risk to the public. | ||
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| "Ciguatera: recent advances but the risk remains." | ||
| Lehane, L. and R. J. Lewis | 2000 | Int J Food Microbiol 61(2-3): 91-125. |
| Ciguatera is an important form of human poisoning caused by the consumption of seafood. The disease is characterised by gastrointestinal, neurological and cardiovascular disturbances. In cases of severe toxicity, paralysis, coma and death may occur. There is no immunity, and the toxins are cumulative. Symptoms may persist for months or years, or recur periodically. The epidemiology of ciguatera is complex and of central importance to the management and future use of marine resources. Ciguatera is an important medical entity in tropical and subtropical Pacific and Indian Ocean regions, and in the tropical Caribbean. As reef fish are increasingly exported to other areas, it has become a world health problem. The disease is under-reported and often misdiagnosed. Lipid-soluble, polyether toxins known as ciguatoxins accumulated in the muscles of certain subtropical and tropical marine finfish cause ciguatera. Ciguatoxins arise from biotransformation in the fish of less polar ciguatoxins (gambiertoxins) produced by Gambierdiscus toxicus, a marine dinoflagellate that lives on macroalgae, usually attached to dead coral. The toxins and their metabolites are concentrated in the food chain when carnivorous fish prey on smaller herbivorous fish. Humans are exposed at the end of the food chain. More than 400 species of fish can be vectors of ciguatoxins, but generally only a relatively small number of species are regularly incriminated in ciguatera. Ciguateric fish look, taste and smell normal, and detection of toxins in fish remains a problem. More than 20 precursor gambiertoxins and ciguatoxins have been identified in G. toxicus and in herbivorous and carnivorous fish. The toxins become more polar as they undergo oxidative metabolism and pass up the food chain. The main Pacific ciguatoxin (P-CTX-1) causes ciguatera at levels=0.1 microg/kg in the flesh of carnivorous fish. The main Caribbean ciguatoxin (C-CTX-1) is less polar and 10-fold less toxic than P-CTX-1. Ciguatoxins activate sodium ion (Na ) channels, causing cell membrane excitability and instability. Worldwide coral bleaching is now well documented, and there is a strong association between global warming and the bleaching and death of coral. This, together with natural environmental factors such as earthquakes and hurricanes, and man-made factors such as tourism, dock construction, sewage and eutrophication, may create more favourable environments for G. toxicus. While low levels of G. toxicus are found throughout tropical and subtropical waters, the presence of bloom numbers is unpredictable and patchy. Only certain genetic strains produce ciguatoxins, and environmental triggers for increasing toxin production are unknown. | ||
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| "A preliminary survey of antibiotic residues and viable bacteria in milk from three Caribbean Basin countries." | ||
| Baynes, R. E., R. Lyman, et al. | 1999 | J Food Prot 62(2): 177-80. |
| There is widespread concern about the presence of antimicrobial drugs in milk. The presence of drug residues in milk may have public health implications. Milk samples (n = 25 to 65/country) were collected from bulk tanks and commercial vendors in Barbados, Costa Rica, and Jamaica between February 1996 and August 1997. Bulk tank samples were collected from high milk-producing regions of Jamaica and Costa Rica and from 26 dairy farms in Barbados. Milk pH, bacterial growth (total CFU/ml and the presence of Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus), and the presence of antimicrobials were determined. Milk samples were tested by a microbial inhibition test (Delvotest-P, Gist-Brocades Food Ingredients, Inc.) to screen for antimicrobial drugs. All positives were retested for the presence of beta-lactam antibiotics after incubating with penicillinase and some positives were identified by high-pressure liquid chromatography-UV. Mean pH values ranged from 6.5 to 6.7. S. aureus was identified in bulk tank samples from Costa Rica (52%), Barbados (44%), and Jamaica (46%). S. agalactiae was identified in bulk tank samples from Costa Rica (28%), Barbados (8 and 16%), and Jamaica (18%). Antimicrobial residues were detected in some bulk tank samples from Barbados (8%) and Jamaica (10%) but not in samples from Costa Rica. All positives in milk from Jamaica and Barbados were determined to be beta-lactams. No residues were detected in pasteurized milk samples from Barbados or ultrahigh-temperature milk from Jamaica. The presence of beta-lactam residues in some of these samples suggests the appropriateness of testing milk prior to processing for consumption. | ||
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| "Microbial quality of oysters sold in Western Trinidad and potential health risk to consumers." | ||
| Rampersad, F. S., S. Laloo, et al. | 1999 | Epidemiol Infect 123(2): 241-50. |
| The prevalence and characteristics of Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. as well as counts of E. coli in raw oysters, condiments/spices, and raw oyster cocktails sampled from 72 vendors across Western Trinidad were determined. The microbial quality of the water used in the preparation of raw oysters was also investigated. Of 200 samples each of raw oysters, condiments/spices and oyster cocktails tested, 154 (77.0%), 89 (44.5%) and 154 (77.0%) respectively yielded E. coli. The differences were statistically significant (P = < 0.001; chi square = 62.91). The mean E. coli count per g in the ready-to-eat oyster cocktail ranged from 1.5 x 10(3) +/- 2.7 x 10(3) in Couva to 8.7x10(6) +/- 4.9x10(7) in San Fernando. One hundred and forty-six (73.0%) oyster cocktails contaminated with E. coli had counts that exceeded the recommended standard of 16 per g. Of a total of 590 E. coli isolates from various sources tested, 24 (4.1%), 20 (3.4%) and 69 (11.7%) were mucoid, haemolytic and non-sorbitol fermenters respectively. Twelve (2.0%) isolates of E. coli were O157 strains, while 92 (46.0%) of 200 E. coli isolates tested belonged to enteropathogenic serogroups. Ninety (45.0%) and 73 (36.5%) of 200 water samples contained total coliforms and faecal coliforms respectively, with counts that exceeded 2.2 coliforms per 100 ml. Salmonella spp. were isolated from 7 (3.5%), 1 (0.5%) and 2 (1.0%) of 200 samples each, of raw oysters, condiments/spices and oyster cocktails respectively. Oysters pose a health risk to consumers in Trinidad, particularly from colibacillosis and salmonellosis, and the need for increased public awareness of this hazard cannot be over-emphasized. | ||
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| "Prevalence and characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from bulk and composite milk and cattle handlers." | ||
| Adesiyun, A. A., L. A. Webb, et al. | 1998 | J Food Prot 61(5): 629-32. |
| The prevalence and characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from bulk and composite milk and from cattle handlers on dairy farms in Trinidad were determined. S. aureus strains were isolated from all 175 bulk milk samples tested (100%) while 280 of 287 composite milk samples (97.6%) yielded S. aureus. The mean counts of S. aureus in bulk milk ranged from 5.9 x 10(3) to 1.2 x 10(5) CFU/ml compared with mean S. aureus counts in composite milk which ranged from 2.4 x 10(3) to 3.0 x 10(4) CFU/ml. Of the 105 strains of S. aureus from bulk milk tested, 45 (42.9%) were enterotoxigenic elaborating staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA), SEB, SEC, SED, or a combination compared to 69 of 146 strains (47.3%) recovered from composite milk which were enterotoxigenic, but the difference was not statistically significant (P > = 0.05; chi 2). Twenty-two of 42 bulk milk samples containing enterotoxigenic S. aureus (52.4%) had counts of the organism which exceeded 10(4) CFU/ml. For S. aureus strains isolated from cattle handlers, 66 of 146 (45.2%) were enterotoxigenic. Prevalence of resistance to nine antimicrobial agents tested was 18.7% and 12.9% among bulk milk and composite milk isolates, respectively, compared to 49.3% and 69.5%. among isolates from human anterior nares and hand swabs, respectively. Resistance to ampicillin and penicillin was highest among both milk (12.2%) and human (53.6%) isolates of S. aureus, and the difference was statistically significant (P < or = 0.001; chi 2). It was concluded that bulk milk containing relatively high counts of enterotoxigenic S. aureus may constitute a health hazard to consumers. | ||
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| "Meat from small ruminants and public health in the Caribbean." | ||
| Vokaty, S. and J. G. Torres | 1997 | Rev Sci Tech 16(2): 426-32. |
| Small ruminants are very important livestock species in the English-speaking Caribbean. Total populations for the Caribbean region are approximately 677,000 goats and 281,000 sheep. Although the primary purpose of sheep and goats is meat production for local consumption, the animals are also a source of emergency income. Production systems are generally characterised as small-scale and low-input, and few breeding or productivity records are kept. Although intra-regional trade does occur between Caribbean countries, there is insufficient production for extra-regional trade. The Caribbean countries collectively have a very favourable animal health situation, which is maintained by strict import restrictions on livestock. Zoonotic diseases are relatively rare, with the exception of leptospirosis. The most important public health risk relates to the slaughter of small ruminants in small, unregulated butcheries which do not have acceptable standards of hygiene. In addition, meat is often transported or sold under unhygienic conditions. Recommendations are made for the reduction of these risks. | ||
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| "Bacteriological quality and associated public health risk of pre-processed bovine milk in Trinidad." | ||
| Adesiyun, A. A. | 1994 | Int J Food Microbiol 21(3): 253-61. |
| The bacteriological quality of pre-processed raw milk originating from all 16 milk collection centres in Trinidad was evaluated. The mean total aerobic counts for bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were determined. The pH and presence of somatic cells in milk were also determined. Of the 507 milk samples collected, 454 (89.5%) were California mastitis test (CMT)-positive and the mean pH was 6.50 +/- 0.13. The total aerobic plate count per ml was generally high for all samples ranging from 5.8 x 10(5) +/- 3.1 x 10(5) to 5.7 x 10(8) +/- 1.5 x 10(9). S. aureus was isolated from 478 (94.3%) samples and the mean counts per ml ranged from 1.5 x 10(5) +/- 1.1 x 10(5) to 9.4 x 10(5) +/- 1.3 x 10(6). Nine (7.7%) of 117 strains of S. aureus produced staphylococcal enterotoxins A(SEA), B(SEB), D(SED) or a combination. E. coli was isolated from 105 (20.7%) samples and the mean counts per ml ranged from 6.6 x 10(2) +/- 1.1 x 10(2) to 4.0 x 10(5) +/- 4.6 x 10(5). Twenty-five (23.6%) of the 106 strains of E. coli tested produced verocytotoxin (VT) but none was positive for heat-labile (LT) toxin. It was concluded that pre-processed milk in Trinidad is of poor bacteriological quality. The detection of high counts of S. aureus in milk with some producing heat stable enterotoxins, coupled with the isolation of some verocytotoxigenic E. coli, are of public health significance to consumers. | ||
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| "Susceptibility to antibiotics of Escherichia coli strains isolated from diarrhoeic and non-diarrhoeic livestock in Trinidad." | ||
| Adesiyun, A. A. and J. S. Kaminjolo | 1992 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 45(3-4): 260-2. |
| The sensitivity of strains of Escherichia coli isolated from calves, piglets, lambs and kids in Trinidad to seven antibiotics was determined. Two hundred and sixty-four (91.3%) of 289 strains isolated from diarrhoeic animals and 173 (87.4%) of 198 strains from non-diarrhoeic animals exhibited resistance to one or more antibiotics. The difference was not statistically significant (P > or = 0.05; X2). Regardless of health status, isolates from lambs were least resistant (75.0%) and those from piglets most resistant (96.7%) and the difference was significant (P < or = 0.001; X2). Strains of E. coli were most resistant to streptomycin (81.3%) and tetracycline (78.9%) and least resistant to chloramphenicol (4.3%) and gentamycin (4.7%). The predominant antibiotic resistance pattern for isolates from all sources was streptomycin-tetracycline (27.9%). It was concluded that the widespread prevalence of resistance to antibiotics reflects their misuse in the local environment. | ||
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| "Ciguatoxin-induced food poisoning in a community. Implications for disease surveillance and medical practice in Jamaica." | ||
| Coleman, A. M. | 1990 | West Indian Med J 39(4): 233-8. |
| This article highlights an outbreak of food poisoning, the result of ingestion of Ciguatoxin-infected fish in a community. The case presentations of the patients involved are used to illustrate the clinical aspects of Ciguatoxin poisoning. The public health aspects of this incident and their relevance to disease surveillance are then discussed. Information of significance to general medical practice in relation to this particular type of fish poisoning, the effect of which could prove fatal in some cases, is also discussed. | ||
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Animal health surveillance programs | ||
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| "The design and development of a quality system for the diagnosis of exotic animal diseases at the National Centre for Animal and Plant Health in Cuba." | ||
| de Oca, N. M., A. Villoch, et al. | 2004 | Rev Sci Tech 23(3): 885-94. |
| A quality system for the diagnosis of exotic animal diseases was developed at the national centre for animal and plant health (CENSA), responsible for coordinating the clinical, epizootiological and laboratory diagnosis of causal agents of exotic animal diseases in Cuba. A model was designed on the basis of standard ISO 9001:2000 of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), standard ISO/IEC 17025:1999 of ISO and the International Electrotechnical Commission, recommendations of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and other regulatory documents from international and national organisations that deal specifically with the treatment of emerging diseases. Twenty-nine standardised operating procedures were developed, plus 13 registers and a checklist to facilitate the evaluation of the system. The effectiveness of the quality system was confirmed in the differential diagnosis of classical swine fever at an animal virology laboratory in Cuba. | ||
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| "Privatisation of veterinary services in Jamaica: a case study." | ||
| Lopez, V., F. C. Alexander, et al. | 2004 | Rev Sci Tech 23(1): 319-30; discussion 391-401. |
| Clinical veterinary services were privatised in Jamaica in September 1992. Using the limited official data, the authors briefly examine the premise and logistics behind transferring the responsibility for clinical services, which may be regarded as 'a private good', to private veterinary practitioners. There are indications that this privatisation model can work for farmers, despite financial problems in the livestock industry and a decline in production, caused by trade liberalisation policies and the substitution of cheaper imports. In addition, other national fiscal problems, such as a downturn in the economy, have left veterinarians attempting to boost production in a livestock industry which lacks adequate financial structuring and resources. The authors express concern that various unpublished projections since the last official agricultural survey in 1996 indicate that the livestock industry in Jamaica is diminishing. It is possible that valuable genetic breeding stock may never recover. A comprehensive study of the future of the livestock industry and its associated services is strongly urged. Ten years after the event, the authors reflect on the privatisation of clinical veterinary services in Jamaica and offer some suggestions to improve on the quality of the services offered by private veterinary practitioners. | ||
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| "Caribbean Health Research Council. 46th annual council and scientific meetings. April 25-28, 2001, Jamaica. Abstracts." | ||
| No Author Specified | 2001 | West Indian Med J 50 Suppl 2: 1-73. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Caribbean Health Research Council 45th annual meeting. Trinidad, April 19-22, 2000. Abstracts." | ||
| No Author Specified | 2000 | West Indian Med J 49 Suppl 2: 16-85. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Perceptions of veterinarians regarding privatization of veterinary services delivery in Ghana and Jamaica." | ||
| Turkson, P. K., B. D. Slenning, et al. | 1999 | Prev Vet Med 40(3-4): 221-32. |
| There are on-going reforms in the delivery of veterinary services in many developing countries, with privatization of certain veterinary activities as one of the approaches. In Jamaica, with the support of veterinarians, clinical aspects of veterinary services were privatized in 1992. In contrast, Ghanaian veterinarians are generally wary of the government's on-going privatization process. The objective of this study was to find out if perceptions of the veterinarians from these two countries on certain issues of privatization were sufficiently different to explain the willingness or reluctance to go into private practice. The response proportions for predominantly self-administered questionnaires were 83% (121/145) and 92% (35/38) for Ghana and Jamaica, respectively. There was a very good (92%) agreement in the perceptions of veterinarians in Ghana and Jamaica on a battery of 24 responses pertaining to privatization of veterinary services. Generally, the perceptions of the veterinarians in Ghana and Jamaica were similar even though the predominant delivery systems for animal health services were different. Therefore, reasons other than those examined in this study may explain the differences in willingness to go into private practice. The need to account for these other reasons is discussed. | ||
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| "Financing the delivery of public-sector animal health services in Jamaica: pre- and post-privatization." | ||
| Turkson, P. K. and C. F. Brownie | 1998 | Trop Anim Health Prod 30(6): 331-9. |
| Lack of adequate financing was a major reason for the privatization of veterinary services in Jamaica in 1992. The belief was that, with privatization, funding of animal health services delivery would improve, since staff numbers and clinical activities undertaken by the Veterinary Division were reduced. However, analyses of data revealed that, in most cases, privatization neither improved nor stemmed the declines, that had started before privatization, in the measures or indicators used. It was concluded that privatization of veterinary services did not result in any appreciable improvement in the financing of the delivery of public-sector animal health services in Jamaica in the short term. | ||
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| "International collaborative research: role of FAO and other international organizations on animal health programs in Latin America and the Caribbean." | ||
| Arellano Sota, C. | 1995 | Vet Parasitol 57(1-3): 11-7. |
| The present situation, needs and potential for the veterinary research and diagnostic laboratories in Latin America and the Caribbean are presented based upon the evaluation of their scientific personnel. The following conclusions were arrived at. (a) The economic crisis in countries of Latin America and the Caribbean has seriously affected veterinary services in general and the diagnostic and research laboratories in particular. (b) Policies need to be reviewed regarding the hiring of new and young scientific personnel in order to replace those retiring, and to define the number and type of working posts needed for the proper operation of the laboratories. (c) Policies need to be reviewed to define the salaries for the scientific personnel of the diagnostic and research laboratories; the only way to retain qualified personnel is through competitive salaries. (d) At present there is more stability among the scientific personnel, especially in those laboratories considered as reference laboratories for the Network; this gives more reliability and guarantees the continuity of their programs and services. (e) Policies need to be reviewed in relation to the publication of scientific information. Latin America journals that have appeared regularly and are well indexed in the international bibliographic services need to be identified and promoted as cited journals for the dissemination of scientific information generated in Latin America and the Caribbean. Diagnostic and research institutions' presentations at national or international congresses should subsequently be published in scientific journals. (f) Evaluation methodology as stated in this review can be used to help identify reliable laboratories with top-quality personnel. | ||
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| "Food protection activities of the Pan American Health Organization." | ||
| No Author Specified | 1994 | Bull Pan Am Health Organ 28(1): 76-9. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "The Caribbean Animal and Plant Information Network." | ||
| Dugas, R. and T. M. Bernardo | 1992 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 653: 380-5. |
| The Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA) is presently implementing a four-year project in the Caribbean region to establish a regional information network on animal and plant health--the Caribbean Animal and Plant Health Information Network (CARAPHIN). CARAPHIN's immediate goal is to give the participating countries the technical capability to process and analyze the phyto- and zoo-sanitary information that they generate, share this information within the region, and use it as an effective instrument for decision making for agricultural development and trade. Sharing of information is further facilitated through the periodic regional and hemispheric meetings organized by IICA, by the Inter-American Animal Health Commission, and by the Technical Advisory Committee on Plant Protection. The Veterinary and Plant Protection Services of the region have expressed interest in the continuation of CARAPHIN as a permanent mechanism for agricultural health information management in the Caribbean. This motivated IICA to seek financing for a second phase of CARAPHIN, which will be executed from 1992 through 1996. Phase II of the project will seek to ensure the continuing application of the techniques and methodologies acquired by the agricultural health services of the different countries, and the functioning of the disease/pest information systems at the regional level. This will be achieved through technical assistance, continuing education, publications, provision of useful databases, and transfer of the project to a regional institution. | ||
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| "Organization of the public health services in Latin America and the Caribbean." | ||
| Ruiz, A. and J. Estupinan | 1992 | Rev Sci Tech 11(1): 117-46. |
| The organisation of veterinary public health (VPH) services in countries of Latin America and the Caribbean has resulted from an historical process which has consolidated the structure of these services and the concept of VPH. This concept comprises five principal plans of action: promotion of animal health in order to increase the production of protein of animal origin; protection of foods for human consumption; vigilance, prevention, control and eradication of zoonoses; promotion of environmental protection, together with the development of biomedical models. These plans of action serve the purpose of improving human health and well-being, which is essential for the socioeconomic development of populations. Within this context, the authors describe the organisation of VPH services for health and agriculture, which have a part to play in intersectorial collaboration and in social participation. Finally, an account is given of progress in the control of rabies, brucellosis and tuberculosis, and the organisation of integrated programmes for food protection and also the control and eradication of foot and mouth disease. Technical cooperation with the Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO) assists these activities and intersectorial coordination, principally between health and agriculture. | ||
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| "Animal production and animal health and their relationship with veterinary public health in Latin America and the Caribbean." | ||
| Casas Olascoaga, R., F. J. Rosenberg, et al. | 1991 | Rev Sci Tech 10(4): 1087-100. |
| The authors analyse the relationships which exist, in terms of programmes, sectors and institutions, between animal health, animal production and veterinary public health on the one hand, and between each of these three sectors and public health in general on the other. The most important common factor is food safety. Undernutrition, which affects some 60 million inhabitants of Latin America and the Caribbean, is still the most important public health problem in this part of the world. While it is known that the major cause of undernutrition is the low gross domestic product and uneven distribution of wealth, increased animal production and productivity would provide the key to an improvement in the situation. The concept of animal health, in its broadest sense, implies optimum animal production in a given region and during a specified period of time. Veterinary public health has functions and objectives which are crucial for food safety: protection and hygiene of foods, and control of the use in animal production of substances toxic to human beings (such as heavy metals, hormones and insecticides). Within the area of transmissible diseases, the authors discuss control measures for zoonoses. Besides the specific subject of interdisciplinary relationships in regard to zoonoses, the authors stress the importance of joint work conducted in the research, development and implementation of laboratory diagnostic activities and the production and quality control of antigens and vaccines. The production of laboratory animals is another sphere of common activity and research, and it cannot be said that such work is specific to any one of the three disciplines. Moreover, the fields of health, animal health and veterinary public health share the same methods and strategies, and reciprocal benefits could be more significant than the objectives of individual programmes. Reference is made to the organisation of state services and their adaptation to administrative de-centralisation, particularly at the local level. | ||
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Swine fever | ||
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| "Origin and evolution of viruses causing classical swine fever in Cuba." | ||
| de Arce, H. D., L. Ganges, et al. | 2005 | Virus Res 112(1-2): 123-31. |
| We have analyzed the origin and evolution of viruses from the classical swine fever (CSF) epidemic that affects Cuba since 2001 by nucleotide sequencing of regions within the E2 glycoprotein and the NS5B (polymerase) genes. The sequence of 190 nucleotides from E2 gene was determined for 10 CSF viruses isolated at different locations of the island, and used for phylogenetic analyses, including sequences from viruses of the 1993--1997 epizootic, previously determined, as well as those from representatives of the different CSFV genotypes. The phylogenetic tree obtained indicates that viruses circulating at present belong to the subgroup 1.2 and are closely related to those isolated during the 1993--1997 epizootic, including the strain Margarita used for vaccine potency tests in Cuba. However, the pattern of evolution revealed by these analyses was different than that observed previously, in which western isolates were almost identical to Margarita strain, while eastern isolates showed a higher level of genetic diversification. In this case, all the viruses analyzed grouped in an independent, define cluster that is closely related, albeit distinguishable, from that of Margarita-related viruses that previously circulated in the western part of Cuba. In addition, the 2001--2003 viruses showed a branched pattern with a level of sequence diversification similar to that observed in the eastern 1993--1997 viruses. Interestingly, a significant fraction (about 54%) of the mutations found in the E2 sequence led to amino acid replacements. This high rate of non-synonymous mutations was not found in the previous Cuban epizootic and has not been reported for other CSF outbreaks. In spite of these amino acid replacements, no antigenic changes were observed in the reactivity of different isolates with CSFV-specific MAbs and polyclonal sera. The phylogenetic tree derived from 409 nucleotides of NS5B gene of seven isolates and Margarita strain, was consistent with that obtained from E2 sequences. In this region, encoding a non-structural protein, a low level of fixation of non-synonymous mutations was observed. The results obtained suggests that epidemiological factors affecting CSFV spread during the current epizootic in Cuba can favour the fixation of non-synonymous mutation in the E2 gene, which could be associated with a lower severity in the clinical signs developed by most of the affected animals. | ||
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| "Phylogenetic analysis of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) field isolates from outbreaks in South and Central America". | ||
| Pereda, A. J., Greiser-Wilke I., et al. | 2005 | Virus Res 110:111-8. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Diagnostic evaluation of a real-time reverse transcriptase PCR assay for detection of classical swine fever virus." | ||
| Risatti, G., L. Holinka, et al. | 2005 | J Clin Microbiol 43(1): 468-71. |
| A fluorogenic-probe hydrolysis (TaqMan)-reverse transcriptase (RT) PCR for classical swine fever virus (CSFV) was evaluated for diagnostic sensitivity and specificity by using clinical samples obtained from the Dominican Republic, where the disease is enzootic. The sensitivity of this test, using nasal swab samples taken from both symptomatic and asymptomatic animals, exceeded the diagnostic sensitivity of virus isolation (100% versus 72.4%, respectively) with little loss of specificity (98.9% versus 100%, respectively). At the herd level, three of four infected farms were identified by virus isolation, while the CSFV real-time RT-PCR assay identified all four infected premises. This simple and accurate test permits rapid detection of CSFV in affected herds. | ||
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| "The design and development of a quality system for the diagnosis of exotic animal diseases at the National Centre for Animal and Plant Health in Cuba." | ||
| De Oca, N. M., A. Villoch, et al. | 2004 | " Rev Sci Tech 23(3): 885-94. |
| A quality system for the diagnosis of exotic animal diseases was developed at the national centre for animal and plant health (CENSA), responsible for coordinating the clinical, epizootiological and laboratory diagnosis of causal agents of exotic animal diseases in Cuba. A model was designed on the basis of standard ISO 9001:2000 of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), standard ISO/IEC 17025:1999 of ISO and the International Electrotechnical Commission, recommendations of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and other regulatory documents from international and national organisations that deal specifically with the treatment of emerging diseases. Twenty-nine standardised operating procedures were developed, plus 13 registers and a checklist to facilitate the evaluation of the system. The effectiveness of the quality system was confirmed in the differential diagnosis of classical swine fever at an animal virology laboratory in Cuba. | ||
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| "Situation of classical swine fever and the epidemiologic and ecologic aspects affecting its distribution in the American continent." | ||
| Vargas Teran, M., N. Calcagno Ferrat, et al. | 2004 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 1026: 54-64. |
| Classical swine fever (CSF) is a viral transboundary animal disease that is highly contagious among domestic and wild pigs, such as boars and peccaries. Today, far from being what was classically described historically, the disease is characterized as having a varied clinical picture, and its diagnosis depends on resorting to proper sample collection and prompt dispatch to a laboratory that can employ several techniques to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Laboratory findings should be complemented with a field analysis of the occurrence of disease to have a better understanding of its epidemiology. The disease is still present in various regions and countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, thus hindering production, trade, and the livestock economy in the region. Consequently, it is among the diseases included in List A of the Office International des Epizooties (OIE). Currently, there are epidemiologic and ecologic aspects that characterize its geographical distribution in the region such as: continued trends in the demand for pork and pork products; an increase in swine investment with low production costs which are able to compete advantageously in international markets; the convention of associating CSF in the syndrome of "swine hemorrhagic diseases" owing to the historical description of its acute presentation and not to the new and more frequent subacute presentations or the diseases with which it may be confused (notably, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome and porcine dermopathic nephropathy syndrome, among others); dissemination of the virus through asymptomatic hosts such as piglets infected in utero; frequent lack of quality control and registration of vaccines and vaccinations; feeding of swine with contaminated food waste (swill); the common practice of smuggling animals and by-products across borders; the backyard family production system or extensive open field methods of swine rearing with minimal input in care and feeding; poor understanding of the epidemiologic role that boars and peccaries could have in the transmission and maintenance of the disease in the Americas; and new procedures in animal welfare that some countries are adopting for the production, transport, and slaughter of domestic animals. Consequently, many countries (i.e., Canada, USA, Chile, Belize, Costa Rica, Panama, and Mexico, where 13 of 32 States are disease free) have given priority to the control and progressive eradication of CSF. In other parts of the Americas, the disease appears under control, as is the case of the five countries of the Andean Region and the 12 northern States of Brazil. In South America, Chile, Uruguay and 13 States in Brazil are disease free. Argentina has mounted a national campaign and is in the process of eradicating the disease. No recent information on its presence or distribution in Paraguay is available. With no master strategy to harmoniously progress in the control and eradication of the disease, 17 countries of the region, jointly led by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, developed the Continental Plan for the Eradication of CSF whose objective is expected to be reached by 2020. | ||
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| "Cutaneous lesions in experimental acute and subacute African swine fever: an immunohistopathological and ultrastructural study." | ||
| Mozos, E., P. Herraez, et al. | 2003 | Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr 110(4): 150-4. |
| Histopathological, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural cutaneous changes are described in acute and subacute forms of experimental African Swine Fever (ASF). Fourteen 3-month-old Large White cross pigs were infected intramuscularly with the Dominican Republic 78 (DR78) ASF virus isolate and euthanized in pairs on alternatives days (3 to 17) post-inoculation (dpi). Three pigs were found dead at 8, 10 and 13 dpi, respectively. Antibodies against viral antigen Vp73, human fibrinogen, glycoprotein IIIa and Factor VIII-ra were used to evaluate viral antigen distribution, fibrin microthrombi and platelets in dermal vessels, respectively. Cutaneous lesions were characterised by vascular changes ranging from hyperaemia, mild oedema, scarce fibrin microthrombi and microhaemorrhages in euthanized animals, to generalized fibrin microthrombosis and microhaemorrhages in dead pigs. Secondary pustules and superficial folliculitis were observed in two animals dead at 10 and 13 dpi. Diffuse cytoplasmic Vp73 labelling was found in numerous intravascular monocytes and dermal macrophages. Ultrastructural studies showed mature viral particles in the lumen of dermal vessels but viral replication was not observed; nonetheless, microtubuloreticular structures were observed in the cytoplasm of some endothelial cells and macrophages which showed cytopathic effects, signs of cell activation or degeneration. Morphological and immunohistochemical evidences of platelet activation, degranulation and consumption were observed from 5 dpi onward. | ||
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| "Swine fever: classical swine fever and African swine fever." | ||
| Kleiboeker, S. B. | 2002 | Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 18(3): 431-51. |
| Because of the clinical and pathologic similarity to common endemic diseases, introduction of CSFV or ASFV strains of moderate to low virulence represents the greatest risk to North American swine herds. Producers, veterinarians, and diagnosticians should increase their awareness of these devastating diseases and request specific diagnostic testing whenever they are suspected. Production practices that improve biosecurity will reduce the risk of introduction of CSF and ASF and limit the spread if an incursion occurs. Additional resources. The following Web sites contain excellent color photographs that will assist producers and practitioners in identifying clinical signs and gross lesions associated with CSFV and ASFV: http://www.vet.uga.edu/vpp/gray_book/FAD and http://www.pighealth.com. The latter Web site and the OIE Web site (http://www.oie.int) offer updated information on current worldwide epizootics of ASF and CSF and other swine diseases. Details of biosecurity procedures can be found at http://www.agebb.missouri.edu; see publication G2340. | ||
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| "Molecular epidemiology of classical swine fever in Cuba." | ||
| Diaz de Arce, H., J. I. Nunez, et al. | 1999 | Virus Res 64(1): 61-7. |
| The origin and evolution of the classical swine fever (CSF) epizootic that occurred in Cuba from 1993 to 1997 has been investigated by the analysis of E2 gene sequences from 15 representative viral isolates as well as the vaccine and the challenge strains used in this country. In the phylogenetic tree derived from these sequences, the Cuban isolates were located in a defined cluster within the previously reported genomic subgroup 1.2. This cluster was related, although distinguishable, from the live vaccine used in Cuba since 1965. Two further groups were identified. One of them included the early viruses isolated in the western part of Cuba until 1996 and the strain Margarita, used for vaccine potency tests since 1965. These results are consistent with the strain Margarita being the origin of the western outbreaks. The viruses isolated from 1996 in eastern Cuba defined a related, but independent group. The level of sequence variation observed in this group does not exclude an independent origin for the eastern isolates. | ||
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| "Reemergence of classical swine fever in cuba" | ||
| Frias-Lepoureau, M.T. | 1997 | In: Morilla, A., Hernandez, P., Yoon, J.K., Zimmerman, J. (Eds.), Trends in emerging Viral Infections of Swine. Iowa State Press, Ames Iowa, pp. 143-147. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Experiences with African swine fever in Haiti." | ||
| Alexander, F. C. | 1992 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 653: 251-6. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Experimental transmission of African swine fever virus by the tick Ornithodoros (Alectorobius) puertoricensis (Acari: Argasidae)." | ||
| Endris, R. G., T. M. Haslett, et al. | 1991 | J Med Entomol 28(6): 854-8. |
| The soft tick Ornithodoros puertoricensis Fox has been found on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic) where African swine fever (ASF) was endemic from 1978 to 1984. To evaluate the vector potential of O. puertoricensis for African swine fever virus (ASFV), second-instar nymphs were experimentally infected by feeding on a viremic pig that was infected with the Dominican Republic isolate (DR-II) of ASFV. Subsequent infection rates and mean virus titers for individually triturated ticks were: second-instar nymph (95.4%, 10(4.38 +/- 0.85)), third-instar nymph (48.9%, 10(4.59 +/- 0.61)), male (46.7%, 10(4.36 +/- 0.61)), and female (35.3%, 10(4.38 +/- 1.09)). Infected ticks transmitted ASFV to susceptible pigs by bite 23, 85, 126, 160, 182, and 239 d after the infective blood meal. These findings show that ASFV is passed transstadially among O. puertoricensis and that O. puertoricensis can be an efficient vector of African swine fever virus. | ||
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| "Potential arthropod vectors of African swine fever virus in North America and the Caribbean basin." | ||
| Hess, W. R., R. G. Endris, et al. | 1987 | Vet Parasitol 26(1-2): 145-55. |
| In an effort to identify arthropods that might serve as vectors and perhaps reservoirs of African swine fever virus (ASFV) if it were to enter the U.S.A., the blood-sucking insect Triatoma gerstaeckeri and four species of ticks of the genus Ornithodoros were established in colonies capable of reproducing in numbers sufficient to enable thorough studies to be made of their ASFV vector potentials. A nymphal stage of T. gerstaeckeri carried the virus for 41 days and retained it through one molt, but was unable to transmit it to susceptible pigs. Studies on O. coriaceus revealed that the species is able to harbor and transmit the virus for greater than 440 days, passing it trans-stadially from the first nymphal stage to the adult, sustaining it through at least four molts. Trans-ovarial passage was not demonstrated and nearly 40% of the ticks died, apparently, of the ASFV infection. O. turicata collected in Florida was also found to be capable of becoming infected with ASFV and transmitting it by bite to susceptible pigs. O. puertoricensis collected during the ASF eradication programs in the Dominican Republic and Haiti was not only readily infected experimentally, but it was also able to transmit the virus trans-stadially and trans-ovarially. However, ASFV was not isolated from any of the 350 O. puertoricensis collected in the Dominican Republic and Haiti. O. parkeri from a long-established laboratory colony were able to carry the virus through at least one molt, but they were unable to transmit it to susceptible pigs. | ||
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| "The present epidemiological status of African swine fever." | ||
| Hess, G. | 1986 | Tierarztl Prax 14(2): 231-5. |
| At present, African swine fever (ASF) persists as an enzootic infection both on the African continent and in Europe (Portugal, Spain, and Sardinia). The recent outbreaks of ASF in Belgium and in the Netherlands have again demonstrated the threat of this disease to the swine population in Germany. The main reasons for this threat are the great tenacity of this virus and its stability in meat and meat products together with an immense tourism into these enzootic areas. Epizootiological peculiarities, such as virus replication in ticks and inapparent infections in wild boars are the reason why eradication of the disease has failed so far, especially when pigs are allowed to roam the countryside. | ||
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| "Survey for potential soft tick (Acari: Argasidae) vectors of African swine fever on the island of Hispaniola." | ||
| Butler, J. F., D. D. Wilson, et al. | 1985 | Exp Appl Acarol 1(1): 63-72. |
| A survey of the occurrence of Ornithodoros ticks in animal burrows was conducted in Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Vacuum sampling techniques were used. Four of 8 sample sites in Haiti and 10 of 70 sample sites in the Dominican Republic were positive for O. puertoricensis Fox. Positive sample sites in Haiti were usually near swine. Sites in the Dominican Republic were in drier regions of the country and were not directly associated with previous swine locations. The determination that O. puertoricensis, a potential vector and reservoir of African swine fever (ASF), is present in this region may pose a serious problem for eradication of ASF from the island of Hispaniola. | ||
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| "Swine fever ironies: the slaughter of the Haitian black pig." | ||
| Diederich, B. | 1985 | Caribb Rev 14(1): 16-7, 41. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Clinical and immunologic responses of pigs to African swine fever virus isolated from the Western Hemisphere." | ||
| Hamdy, F. M. and A. H. Dardiri | 1984 | Am J Vet Res 45(4): 711-4. |
| Pigs in the United States were exposed to African swine fever (ASF) virus isolated from pigs in Brazil and the Dominican Republic. The former were examined for clinical response, lesions, viremia, and antibody response. Sequential blood samples were tested for the presence of ASF virus by the hemadsorption test (in swine buffy coat cell culture) and for antibody to ASF virus by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The incubation period was 3 to 5 days; inoculated pigs had fever for 8 to 16 days (mean 12.5 days) and viremia at 3 to 35 days after inoculation and few died. Inoculated pigs developed antibodies at 7 days after inoculation which were detectable until the termination of the experiment (10th month). Reinoculation of some of the surviving pigs with the homologous isolate at approximately 6 months after exposure did not induce clinical response, viremia, nor anamnestic antibody response. In contrast, challenge exposures of convalescent pigs with the Lisbon-60 viral strain approximately 5 weeks after exposure to the Brazilian strain produced death, in spite of an anamnestic antibody response. | ||
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| "Additional characteristics of disease caused by the African swine fever viruses isolated from Brazil and the Dominican Republic." | ||
| Mebus, C. A. and A. H. Dardiri | 1979 | Proc Annu Meet U S Anim Health Assoc(83): 227-39. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Some characteristics of african swine fever viruses isolated from Brazil and the Dominican Republic." | ||
| Mebus, C. A., A. H. Dardiri, et al. | 1978 | Proc Annu Meet U S Anim Health Assoc(82): 232-6. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "African swine fever in the Americas." | ||
| Reichard, R. E. | 1978 | Proc Annu Meet U S Anim Health Assoc(82): 226-31. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Observations on an outbreak of swine fever in Barbados". | ||
| Hutson, L. R. | 1974 | Vet Rec 95(16): 363-5. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Pathological anatomic experiences in the African swine fever outbreak in Cuba in 1971." | ||
| Tury, E., J. R. Ramos, et al. | 1973 | Acta Vet Acad Sci Hung 23(4): 389-409. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Preliminary report on the African swine fever epizootic in Cuba. Methods of diagnosis and control." | ||
| No Author Specified | 1971 | Bull Off Int Epizoot 75(7): 367-437. |
| No abstract available | ||
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West Nile | ||
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| "Introductions of West Nile virus strains to Mexico." | ||
| Deardorff, E., J. Estrada-Franco, et al. | 2006 | Emerg Infect Dis 12(2): 314-8. |
| Complete genome sequencing of 22 West Nile virus isolates suggested 2 independent introductions into Mexico. A previously identified mouse-attenuated glycosylation variant was introduced into southern Mexico through the southeastern United States, while a common US genotype appears to have been introduced incrementally into northern Mexico through the southwestern United States. | ||
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| "West Nile virus: epidemiology and clinical features of an emerging epidemic in the United States." | ||
| Hayes, E. B. and D. J. Gubler | 2006 | Annu Rev Med 57: 181-94. |
| West Nile virus (WNV) was first detected in North America in 1999 during an outbreak of encephalitis in New York City. Since then the virus has spread across North America and into Canada, Latin America, and the Caribbean. The largest epidemics of neuroinvasive WNV disease ever reported occurred in the United States in 2002 and 2003. This paper reviews new information on the epidemiology and clinical aspects of WNV disease derived from greatly expanded surveillance and research on WNV during the past six years. | ||
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| "West Nile virus activity in Latin America and the Caribbean." | ||
| Komar, N. and G. G. Clark | 2006 | Rev Panam Salud Publica 19(2): 112-7. |
| OBJECTIVES: West Nile virus (Flavivirus: Flaviviridae; WNV) has spread rapidly throughout the Caribbean Basin since its initial detection there in 2001. This report summarizes our current knowledge of WNV transmission in tropical America. METHODS: We reviewed the published literature and consulted with key public health officials to obtain unpublished data. RESULTS: West Nile virus infections first appeared in human residents of the Cayman Islands and the Florida Keys in 2001, and in apparently healthy Jamaican birds sampled early in 2002. Serologic evidence of WNV infection in 2002 was detected in horses, chickens and resident free-ranging birds in Guadeloupe, the Dominican Republic, and eastern Mexico. In 2003, WNV spread in Mexico and northern Central America, and serologic evidence was detected in the Bahamas, Puerto Rico and Cuba. In 2004, the first serologic evidence of WNV activity in South American ecosystems surfaced in September-October in Colombia and Trinidad, where domestic animals circulated WNV-neutralizing antibodies. CONCLUSIONS: The sparse reports of equine, human and avian disease in Latin America and the Caribbean is puzzling. Isolates are needed to evaluate viral attenuation or other possible explanations for reduced disease burden in tropical ecosystems. | ||
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| "West Nile Virus infection in humans and horses, Cuba." | ||
| Pupo, M., M.G. Guzman MG, et al. | 2006 | Emerg Infect Dis 12(6): 1022-4. |
| A surveillance system to detect West Nile virus (WNV) was established in Cuba in 2002. WNV infection was confirmed by serologic assays in 4 asymptomatic horses and 3 humans with encephalitis in 2003 and 2004. These results are the first reported evidence of WNV activity in Cuba. | ||
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| "Serologic evidence for West Nile virus transmission in Puerto Rico and Cuba." | ||
| Dupuis, A. P., 2nd, P. P. Marra, et al. | 2005 | Am J Trop Med Hyg 73(2): 474-6. |
| During the spring of 2004, approximately 1,950 blood specimens were collected from resident and Nearctic-Neotropical migratory birds on the Caribbean islands of Puerto Rico and Cuba prior to northerly spring migrations. Eleven birds and seven birds, collected in Puerto Rico and Cuba, respectively, showed evidence of antibody in a flavivirus enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Confirmatory plaque-reduction neutralization test results indicated neutralizing antibodies to West Nile virus in non-migratory resident birds from Puerto Rico and Cuba, which indicated local transmission. | ||
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| "West Nile Virus isolation in human and mosquitoes, Mexico." | ||
| Elizondo-Quiroga, D., C. T. Davis, et al. | 2005 | Emerg Infect Dis 11(9): 1449-52. |
| West Nile virus has been isolated for the first time in Mexico, from a sick person and from mosquitoes (Culex quinquefasciatus). Partial sequencing and analysis of the 2 isolates indicate that they are genetically similar to other recent isolates from northern Mexico and the western United States. | ||
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| "Epidemiology and transmission dynamics of West Nile virus disease." | ||
| Hayes, E. B., N. Komar, et al. | 2005 | Emerg Infect Dis 11(8): 1167-73. |
| From 1937 until 1999, West Nile virus (WNV) garnered scant medical attention as the cause of febrile illness and sporadic encephalitis in parts of Africa, Asia, and Europe. After the surprising detection of WNV in New York City in 1999, the virus has spread dramatically westward across the United States, southward into Central America and the Caribbean, and northward into Canada, resulting in the largest epidemics of neuroinvasive WNV disease ever reported. From 1999 to 2004, >7,000 neuroinvasive WNV disease cases were reported in the United States. In 2002, WNV transmission through blood transfusion and organ transplantation was described for the first time, intrauterine transmission was first documented, and possible transmission through breastfeeding was reported. This review highlights new information regarding the epidemiology and dynamics of WNV transmission, providing a new platform for further research into preventing and controlling WNV disease. | ||
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| "West Nile virus survey of birds and mosquitoes in the Dominican Republic." | ||
| Komar, O., M. B. Robbins, et al. | 2005 | Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 5(2): 120-6. |
| We report West Nile virus (WNV) activity from a new area on Hispaniola, in the vicinity of Monte Cristi National Park in northwest Dominican Republic. Specific anti-WNV antibodies were detected in 12 of 58 (21%) resident birds sampled in March 2003, representing six species in the orders Cuculiformes (cuckoos), Strigiformes (owls), and Passeriformes (song birds). This seroprevalence is the highest reported from any site in the Caribbean Basin. Virus was not detected in any mosquitoes or tissues from bird specimens. Testing of 20 sick or dead birds was negative for WNV. Undetermined flavivirus antibodies were detected in four resident birds at Monte Cristi, as well as in five resident birds at Sierra de Baoruco National Park in southwest Dominican Republic. These data suggest that an unidentified flavivirus, as well as WNV, is active in the Dominican Republic. | ||
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| "West Nile virus surveillance, Guadeloupe, 2003-2004. " | ||
| Lefrancois, T., B. J. Blitvich, et al. | 2005 | Emerg Infect Dis 11(7): 1100-3. |
| We conducted extensive surveillance for West Nile virus infection in equines and chickens in Guadeloupe in 2003-2004. We showed a high seroprevalence in equines in 2003 related to biome, followed by a major decrease in virus circulation in 2004. No human or equine cases were reported during the study. | ||
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| "Phylogenetic analysis of West Nile virus, Nuevo Leon State, Mexico." | ||
| Blitvich, B. J., I. Fernandez-Salas, et al. | 2004 | Emerg Infect Dis 10(7): 1314-7. |
| West Nile virus RNA was detected in brain tissue from a horse that died in June 2003 in Nuevo Leon State, Mexico. Nucleotide sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the premembrane and envelope genes showed that the virus was most closely related to West Nile virus isolates collected in Texas in 2002. | ||
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| "West Nile: worldwide current situation in animals and humans." | ||
| Dauphin, G., S. Zientara, et al. | 2004 | Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 27(5): 343-55. |
| West Nile (WN) virus is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that is native to Africa, Europe, and Western Asia. It mainly circulates among birds, but can infect many species of mammals, as well as amphibians and reptiles. Epidemics can occur in rural as well as urban areas. Transmission of WN virus, sometimes involving significant mortality in humans and horses, has been documented at erratic intervals in many countries, but never in the New World until it appeared in New York City in 1999. During the next four summers it spread with incredible speed to large portions of 46 US states, and to Canada, Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean. In many respects, WN virus is an outstanding example of a zoonotic pathogen that has leaped geographical barriers and can cause severe disease in human and equine. In Europe, in the past two decades there have been a number of significant outbreaks in several countries. However, very little is known of the ecology and natural history of WN virus transmission in Europe and most WN outbreaks in humans and animals remain unpredictable and difficult to control. | ||
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| "Longitudinal studies of West Nile virus infection in avians, Yucatan State, Mexico." | ||
| Farfan-Ale, J. A., B. J. Blitvich, et al. | 2004 | Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 4(1): 3-14. |
| Following the introduction of West Nile virus (WNV) into North America in 1999, surveillance for evidence of infection with this virus in migratory and resident birds was established in Yucatan State, Mexico in March 2000. Overall, 8611 birds representing 182 species and 14 orders were captured and assayed for antibodies to WNV. Of these, 5066 (59%) birds were residents and 3545 (41%) birds were migrants. Twenty-one (0.24%) birds exhibited evidence of flavivirus infection. Of these, 8 birds had antibodies to WNV by epitope-blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Five (0.06%) birds (gray catbird, brown-crested flycatcher, rose-breasted grosbeak, blue bunting and indigo bunting) were confirmed to have WNV infections by plaque reduction neutralization test. The WNV-infected birds were sampled in December 2002 and January 2003. The brown-crested flycatcher and blue bunting presumably were resident birds; the other WNV seropositive birds were migrants. These data provide evidence of WNV transmission among birds in the Yucatan Peninsula. | ||
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| "West Nile virus: a growing concern?" | ||
| Gould, L. H. and E. Fikrig | 2004 | J Clin Invest 113(8): 1102-7. |
| West Nile virus was first detected in North America in 1999 and has subsequently spread throughout the United States and Canada and into Mexico and the Caribbean. This review describes the epidemiology and ecology of West Nile virus in North America and the prospects for effective treatments and vaccines. | ||
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| "West Nile virus, Guadeloupe." | ||
| Quirin, R., M. Salas, et al. | 2004 | Emerg Infect Dis 10(4): 706-8. |
| To determine whether West Nile virus (WNV) had reached the archipelago of Guadeloupe, a serologic study in horses and birds was conducted in 2002. Immunoglobulin (Ig) G, IgM, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and seroneutralization tests identified WNV infection in horses and chickens. Six months later, a high rate of seroconversion was observed in horses. | ||
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| "West Nile fever: an emerging disease in Mexico." | ||
| Ramos, C. and J. A. Falcon Lezama | 2004 | Salud Publica Mex 46(5): 488-90. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Serologic evidence of West Nile virus infection in horses, Coahuila State, Mexico." | ||
| Blitvich, B. J., I. Fernandez-Salas, et al. | 2003 | Emerg Infect Dis 9(7): 853-6. |
| Serum samples were obtained from 24 horses in the State of Coahuila, Mexico, in December 2002. Antibodies to West Nile virus were detected by epitope-blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and confirmed by plaque reduction neutralization test in 15 (62.5%) horses. We report the first West Nile virus activity in northern Mexico. | ||
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| "Serologic evidence of West Nile virus transmission, Jamaica, West Indies." | ||
| Dupuis, A. P., 2nd, P. P. Marra, et al. | 2003 | Emerg Infect Dis 9(7): 860-3. |
| In spring 2002, an intensive avian serosurvey was initiated in Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and Mexico. We collected >1,600 specimens from resident and nonresident neotropical migratory birds before their northerly migrations. Plaque reduction neutralization test results indicated specific neutralizing antibodies to West Nile virus in 11 resident species from Jamaica. | ||
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| "West Nile virus in Mexico: evidence of widespread circulation since July 2002." | ||
| Estrada-Franco, J. G., R. Navarro-Lopez, et al. | 2003 | Emerg Infect Dis 9(12): 1604-7. |
| West Nile virus (WNV) antibodies were detected in horses from five Mexican states, and WNV was isolated from a Common Raven in the state of Tabasco. Phylogenetic studies indicate that this isolate, the first from Mexico, is related to strains from the central United States but has a relatively high degree of sequence divergence. | ||
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| "Serologic evidence of West Nile Virus infection in birds, Tamaulipas State, Mexico." | ||
| Fernandez-Salas, I., J. F. Contreras-Cordero, et al. | 2003 | Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 3(4): 209-13. |
| Following the introduction of West Nile virus (WNV) into North America in 1999, surveillance for WNV in migratory and resident birds was established in Tamaulipas State, northern Mexico in December 2001. Overall, 796 birds representing 70 species and 10 orders were captured and assayed for antibodies to WNV. Nine birds had flavivirus-specific antibodies by epitope-blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; four were confirmed to have antibody to WNV by plaque reduction neutralization test. The WNV-infected birds were a house wren, mourning dove, verdin and Bewick's wren. The house wren is a migratory species; the other WNV-infected birds are presumably residents. The WNV-infected birds were all captured in March 2003. These data provide the first indirect evidence of WNV transmission among birds in northern Mexico. | ||
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| "West Nile virus transmission in resident birds, Dominican Republic." | ||
| Komar, O., M. B. Robbins, et al. | 2003 | Emerg Infect Dis 9(10): 1299-302. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Serologic evidence of West Nile virus infection in horses, Yucatan State, Mexico." | ||
| Lorono-Pino, M. A., B. J. Blitvich, et al. | 2003 | Emerg Infect Dis 9(7): 857-9. |
| Serum samples were obtained from 252 horses in the State of Yucatan, Mexico, from July to October 2002. Antibodies to West Nile virus were detected by epitope-blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays in three (1.2%) horses and confirmed by plaque reduction neutralization test. We report the first West Nile virus activity in the State of Yucatan. | ||
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| "Migratory birds and West Nile virus." | ||
| Rappole, J. H. and Z. Hubalek | 2003 | J Appl Microbiol 94 Suppl: 47S-58S. |
| West Nile virus was first recorded in the New World during August 1999 in New York City. Aetiology of the disease in the Old World indicated birds as the likely introductory and amplifying hosts with ornithophilous mosquitoes, e.g. Culex pipiens, as the principal vectors. Speculation regarding likely agents for movement of the virus in its new environment focused on migratory birds, but evidence to date is equivocal. While spread of the disease has been fairly rapid, at a rate of roughly 70 km a month, it has not shown the kind of long-distance, leap frog movements one might expect if transient birds were the principal introductory hosts. Furthermore, movement of the disease has not been focused southward, but shows a radiating pattern with detection sites located in all directions from New York where terrestrial habitat was available. In addition, tests among potential New World, avian hosts have revealed prolonged viraemia (up to 5 days) only in the relatively non-migratory House Sparrow (Passer domesticus). Dispersal movements by this species could account for the observed pattern of West Nile virus spread in the Western Hemisphere to date. Regardless of whether avian migration, dispersal, or some other agent is responsible, West Nile virus should reach the New World tropics in another 1-2 years, at which time a vast number of new potential introductory and amplifying avian hosts would be exposed to the disease and mosquito vectors would be available throughout most of the year, likely causing serious, long-term threats to human health and vulnerable avian populations in the region. | ||
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| "Serologic survey of domestic animals for zoonotic arbovirus infections in the Lacandon Forest region of Chiapas, Mexico." | ||
| Ulloa, A., S. A. Langevin, et al. | 2003 | Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 3(1): 3-9. |
| A serologic survey in domestic animals (birds and mammals) was conducted in four communities located in the Lacandon Forest region of northeastern Chiapas, Mexico, during June 29 to July 1, 2001, with the objective to identify zoonotic arboviruses circulating in this area. We collected 202 serum samples from healthy domestic chickens, geese, ducks, turkeys, horses and cattle. The samples were tested by plaque-reduction neutralization test for antibodies to selected mosquito-borne flaviviruses (family Flaviviridae), including St. Louis encephalitis (SLE), Rocio (ROC), Ilheus (ILH), Bussuquara (BSQ), and West Nile (WN) viruses, and selected alphaviruses (family Togaviridae), including Western equine encephalitis (WEE), Eastern equine encephalomyelitis (EEE), and Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) viruses. Neutralizing antibodies to SLE virus were detected in two (8%) of 26 turkeys, 15 (23%) of 66 cattle, and three (60%) of five horses. Antibodies to VEE virus were detected in 29 (45%) of 65 cattle. Because some of these animals were as young as 2 months old, we demonstrated recent activity of these two viruses. Sub-typing of the VEE antibody responses indicated that the etiologic agents of these infections belonged to the IE variety of VEE, which has been reported from other regions of Chiapas. WN virus-neutralizing antibodies were detected in a single cattle specimen (PRNT(90) = 1:80) that also circulated SLE virus-neutralizing antibodies (PRNT(90) = 1:20), suggesting that WN virus may have been introduced into the region. We also detected weak neutralizing activity to BSQ virus in four cattle and a chicken specimen, suggesting the presence of this or a closely related virus in Mexico. There was no evidence for transmission of the other viruses (ROC, ILH, EEE, WEE) in the study area. | ||
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Leptospirosis | ||
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| "Sero-epidemiology of canine leptospirosis in Trinidad: serovars, implications for vaccination and public health." | ||
| Adesiyun, A. A., C. Hull-Jackson, et al. | 2006 | J Vet Med B Infect Dis Vet Public Health 53(2): 91-9. |
| A sero-epidemiological study on canine leptospirosis was conducted in house, stray, farm and hunting dogs, as well as in suspect cases of clinical canine leptospirosis. Serum samples were collected from apparently healthy (vaccinated and non-vaccinated), house dogs. A questionnaire was administered to the owners to elicit information on risk factors for leptospirosis. The microscopic agglutination test was used to screen for leptospirosis using 17 international serovars. Reciprocal titres of between 100 and <800 were considered as evidence of past exposure while reciprocal titres of 800 or greater were classified as suggestive of acute/current infection. Of a total of 419 serum samples tested, 61 (14.6%) were seropositive for Leptospira agglutinins, 23 (5.5%) had mixed infections and 16 (3.8%) had current infection. Amongst 50 suspected cases of clinical leptospirosis, 24 (48.0%) were seropositive and only 13 (26.0%) had current infection compared with 10 (6.3%) and three (1.9%) of 160 apparently healthy house dogs respectively. The difference was statistically significant (P < 0.05; chi2). Twelve (25.5%) of 47 hunting dogs, 10 (20.4%) of 49 farm dogs and five (4.4%) of 113 stray dogs were seropositive (P < 0.05; chi2). Overall, a total of nine serovars were detected with serovars mankarso, icterohaemorrhagiae RGA, autumnalis and copenhageni being involved in 29 (47.5%), 20 (32.8%), 25 (41.0%) and 10 (16.4%) respectively in 61 seropositive dogs (P < 0.05; chi2). Serovar mankarso was most predominant in seropositive apparently healthy dogs, 37.8% (14/37), suspected clinical cases of leptospirosis, 62.5% (15/24) compared with serovar icterohaemorrhagiae with a frequency of 21.6% (8/37) and 50.0% (12/24), the difference being statistically significant (P < 0.05; chi2). Although all vaccines used for prevention of canine leptospirosis in the country contain serovars canicola and icterohaemorrhagiae, serovar mankarso was mostly associated with infection and disease and may be a good candidate for inclusion in the vaccine used locally. The public health risk posed to owners of dogs infected with Leptospira cannot be over-emphasized considering the zoonotic nature of the disease. | ||
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| "Retrospective review of leptospirosis in Guadeloupe, French West Indies 1994-2001. " | ||
| Herrmann-Storck, C., A. Brioudes, et al. | 2005 | West Indian Med J 54(1): 42-6. |
| Demographic, clinical, biological and personal data were obtained from patients hospitalized with symptoms of leptospirosis in the Hospital of Pointe a Pitre, Guadeloupe, French West Indies from 1994 to 2001. Of the 897 screened patients, 212 were acute cases, 607 were non-infected and 78 were undetermined cases. There was no predominant age group. Leptospirosis transmission followed the rainfall cycle and was greater in rural areas. Jaundice and conjunctival suffusion were significantly more frequent in cases than non-cases. Males, professions considered to be at risk and contact with swine or bovine were associated with infection. Serogroups Icterohaemorrhagiae, Cynopteri, Australis, Sejroe, Pomona and Ballum were serovars presumed responsible for acute cases. | ||
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| "Latex agglutination system for the rapid diagnosis of leptospirosis in Cuba." | ||
| Obregon, A. M., C. Fernandez, et al. | 2004 | Rev Panam Salud Publica 16(4): 259-65. |
| OBJECTIVES: To assess the sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and stability of five latex agglutination systems for detecting antibodies against leptospira in human and animal sera, by using the Leptospira serotypes that are most widely prevalent in Cuba. METHODS: We performed an analytic and descriptive study with 706 human sera (65 tested positive for antibodies against leptospira with microagglutination (MAT) and hemagglutination (HA) techniques; 156 sera that tested negative with MAT and HA); 485 sera from 424 patients who had clinical or epidemiologic signs of leptospirosis; and 29 animal sera (16 from equines, 6 from bovines, 5 from porcines, 1 from a canine, and 1 from an ovine). All of the samples were tested with five latex conjugates made from whole cells of Leptospira interrogans, specifically the four serogroups that circulated most widely in Cuba from 2002 to 2004. The cells obtained from cultured cell lines yielded four specific conjugates (latex-canicola, latex-icterohemorrhagiae, latexpomona, and latex-sejroe), as well as one latex conjugate made from a combination of all four serogroups in equal quantities (latex-pool). In addition, samples were tested with the commercial latex agglutination Lepto Tek Tri Dot (bioMeriuex, France) kit. The stability and reproducibility of the latex conjugates were assessed through monthly controls over a period of 6 months with positive and negative sera. RESULTS: Of the systems that were assessed, the best combination of sensitivity and specificity was obtained with the latex-Pool conjugate (93,8% and 90,4%, respectively). The best combination of positive and negative predictive values was seen with the latex-Sejroe conjugate (90,9% and 95,8%), respectively), followed by the latex-Pool conjugate (94.2% and 96.6%, respectively). The positive and negative predictive values of the Lepto Tek Dri Dot commercial system were 78.5% and 88.4%, respectively. Among the 137 patient samples that tested positive for one of the serotypes when MAT was used, latex conjugates succeeded in correctly identifying 107 (78.1%), whereas the latex-Pool conjugate detected 116 (84.7%) positive sera. When animal sera were tested, the latex-Pool conjugate detected the greatest number of positive serum samples and showed the greatest concordance with MAT (93.1%). The conjugates studied showed good stability and reproducibility. CONCLUSIONS: Latex conjugates made from whole cells of the most widely circulating leptospira in Cuba showed a degree of concordance with MAT that was similar to or better than that seen with the Lepto Tek Dri Dot commercial system, both in human and animal sera. We recommend more widespread use of the latex-Pool conjugate in Cuba in the initial screening for antibodies against leptospira. | ||
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| "Leptospiral carriage by mice and mongooses on the island of Barbados." | ||
| Matthias, M. A. and P. N. Levett | 2002 | West Indian Med J 51(1): 10-3. |
| Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease, maintained by chronic infection of the kidneys of reservoir animals, usually small mammals. Infection in humans is acquired from direct or indirect exposure to the urine of infected animals. Leptospirosis has a high incidence in tropical regions, and has been studied extensively in several Caribbean countries. We studied the carriage of Leptospira serovars by two small mammals which are potential maintenance hosts of the disease in Barbados. A total of 136 mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) and 97 mice (Mus musculus) were caught in live traps. Leptospiral antibodies were detected by microscopic agglutination test (MAT) using antigens representing 12 serogroups, and kidney tissues were inoculated into polysorbate medium for isolation of leptospires. The seroprevalence (at a titre of > or = 100) in mice was 28.2% (24/85, 95% CI 19.0, 39.1) and in mongooses 40.7% (48/118, 95% CI 31.7, 50.1). In mice, antibodies were detected predominantly against serogroups Ballum and Autumnalis, while in mongooses the predominant serogroup was Autumnalis. Leptospires were isolated from 28 mice (28.9%, 95% CI 20.1, 39.0) and from 4 mongooses (2.9%, 95% CI 0.8, 7.4). Mouse isolates were identified as serovars arborea (17) and bim (7). As in other parts of the world, common house mice (Mus musculus) represent a significant reservoir of leptospirosis. Although carriage of the Ballum serovar, arborea, was not unexpected, this represents the first time that an animal reservoir of serovar bim has been identified. This is significant because bim causes about 63% of human leptospirosis in Barbados, and control efforts and education for prevention can now be targeted at a specific reservoir. | ||
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| "Surveillance of leptospiral carriage by feral rats in Barbados." | ||
| Levett, P. N., D. Walton, et al. | 1998 | West Indian Med J 47(1): 15-7. |
| Rodents, particularly rats, are widely held to be the source of most human cases of leptospirosis. Feral rats were trapped at sites throughout Barbados during two six month surveys: from October to March 1986/87 and from October to March 1994/95. During the first survey, 63 rats were trapped, of which 26 (41%) were identified as Rattus rattus and 37 (59%) as Rattus norvegicus. In the second study, 100 rats were trapped, of which R. rattus comprised 24% (24) and R. norvegicus 76% (76). Cultures of blood, urine and kidney were made in EMJH medium. Leptospires were isolated from 12/63 (19%) and from 16/100 (16%) of the rats during 1986/87 and 1994/95, respectively; 27/28 isolates were recovered from the kidneys or urine or both, while only one isolate was recovered from the blood. During the first study, isolates were identified as serovars copenhageni (11) and arborea (1), while in the second study, serovars copenhageni (9), arborea (5) and bim (1) were identified; one isolate was lost before it could be identified. In the first study, antibodies were detected by microscopic agglutination at a titre of > or = 100 in 26/62 (42%) of rats tested, while in the second survey, 5/100 (5%) of rats had similar titres. In two surveys, conducted eight years apart, we confirmed that rats in Barbados are commonly infected with leptospires, and that viable organisms are found in the kidneys and urine, evidence of chronic infection and thus excretion of leptospires in rodent urine. Moreover, the predominant serovar isolated was copenhageni, of which Rattus spp. are the worldwide reservoir. There was little evidence that rats act as a reservoir for the serovar bim, the most common cause of human leptospirosis in Barbados. | ||
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| "Seroepidemiology of canine leptospirosis on the island of Barbados." | ||
| Weekes, C. C., C. O. Everard, et al. | 1997 | Vet Microbiol 57(2-3): 215-22. |
| Previous surveillance in Barbados documented the absence of infection with Leptospira serogroup Canicola in dogs. The aim of this study was to survey the current state of canine leptospirosis in Barbados, 10 years after the last survey. Sera from 78 unwanted dogs scheduled for euthanasia and 61 dogs suspected of having acute leptospirosis were tested by microscopic agglutination (MAT) and by an ELISA method adapted for canine IgM and IgG antibodies. The seroprevalence in unwanted dogs was 62% (48/78), at an MAT titre of > or = 100. The majority of animals had low titres, suggestive of previous infection. Serogroup Autumnalis was the most common reactor (45%), followed by serogroups Icterohaemorrhagiae and Australis (each 16%) and Pomona (13%). Serogroup Ballum was uncommon in this group. The seroprevalence determined by MAT in acutely-ill dogs was 75% (46/61). The most common predominant serogroup was Icterohaemorrhagiae (36%) followed by serogroup Australis (13%), while serogroups Autumnalis and Ballum were also of little significance. Paired specimens were available from eight acutely-ill dogs. One animal was seronegative while five dogs showed evidence of seroconversion. An IgM-ELISA titre of > or = 320 was used to confirm current infection in eight of these nine animals. Previous studies in Barbados showed a higher prevalence of serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae than of Autumnalis, but the relative frequency of these two serogroups may be changing. The high seroprevalence in dogs is of public health concern because the close contact between dogs and man may provide the link between a reservoir in the environment and susceptible humans. | ||
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| "Serological survey of leptospirosis in livestock animals in the Lesser Antilles." | ||
| Levett, P. N., C. U. Whittington, et al. | 1996 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 791: 369-77. |
| A serological survey was performed of 1788 cattle, goats and sheep on 13 islands in the Lesser Antilles. Sera were tested by microscopic agglutination (MAT) using a panel of 22 live antigens. Evidence of past exposure, at a titer of > or = 100, was found in 101 animals (5.6%). Antibodies were more common in cattle and goats (7.2% in each) than in sheep (1.7%). Seroprevalence was highest in cattle in Martinique (20%) and in goats in St. Vincent (23%). The predominant serogroups were Sejroe (largely confined to cattle in Martinique), Autumnalis, Icterohaemorrhagiae, Grippotyphosa, and Cynopteri. Eleven cattle from Martinique and 2 sheep with titers of > or = 800 showed evidence of recent infection. | ||
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| "A twelve-year study of leptospirosis on Barbados." | ||
| Everard, C. O., C. N. Edwards, et al. | 1995 | Eur J Epidemiol 11(3): 311-20. |
| Between November 1979 and December 1991, 398 cases of severe leptospirosis were confirmed on Barbados (range for 1980-1991 23-56; mean 32.7; incidence 13.3/100,000/year). For the six-year periods 1980-1985 and 1986-1991 there was no significant change in incidence with time. Incidence is unlikely to change significantly in the next decade. Monthly average case numbers ranged from 1.4 (July) to 4.3 (November). The average (2.8) for June to December (the 7 wetter months) was not significantly higher than that (2.5) for January to May (the 5 drier months). The age range was 7-86. There were three times as many male cases (302) as female (96), and nearly 10 times as many in those < 35. Although the highest number of cases (69) was in males aged 15-24, the highest incidence was in the older age groups, particularly the male 65-74 year-olds, and the female 55-64 year-olds. Leptospirosis was the proven cause of death in 55 (13.8%) hospital patients (annual range 0-13, mean 4.5). Some of a further 39 fatalities might have been cases. Death from leptospirosis was nearly twice as common among the women as among the men. Only one patient under 20 years of age died. Leptospira were isolated and identified from 117 (29.4%) of the 398 sick patients. The infecting organisms were bim (serogroup Autumnalis--75), copenhageni (Icterohaemorrhagiae-26), arborea (Ballum-14) and bajan (Australis-2). These infecting serovars could not be distinguished clinically, but infection was milder in children than in adults. Despite its predominance in surveyed children, serogroup Panama was virtually absent in this study. Rainfall is the major factor affecting the distribution of cases; not surprisingly, sanitation workers and agricultural workers appear to be the groups at highest risk. The general lack of clear-cut risk factors reflects the ubiquity of leptospires in the environment and the fact that the disease is not entirely occupational. | ||
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| "Leptospira serology in small ruminants on St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands." | ||
| Ahl, A. S., D. A. Miller, et al. | 1992 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 653: 168-71. |
| A serological survey of 16 serovars of Leptospira interrogans, previously reported in tropical small ruminants, was undertaken to determine the serovars involved and the prevalence of these antibodies in sheep and goats on St. Croix, U. S. Virgin Islands (USVI). Seven of eight goat herds (108 animals) had at least two seropositive animals in each herd with an individual animal seroprevalence of 26%. The 53 sheep tested (one flock only) showed a 32% seroprevalence. Antibodies against seven serovars were detected in goats (autumnalis, ballum, bataviae, bratislava, canicola, icterohemorrhagiae, and pyrogenes). In addition, hardjo antibodies were detected in sheep. Serovar autumnalis accounted for about 30% of seropositive animals in each species. Many animals showed titers against more than one serovar. The number of seropositive animals suggests Leptospira may be a factor in the health of small ruminants on St. Croix. | ||
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| "Leptospires isolated from toads and frogs on the Island of Barbados." | ||
| Gravekamp, C., H. Korver, et al. | 1991 | Zentralbl Bakteriol 275(3): 403-11. |
| Four pathogenic strains of leptospires were isolated from the kidneys of toads (Bufo marinus) and seven from frogs (Eleutherodactylus johnstonei). Isolates from two toads and one frog belonged to serovar bim, the causative agent of most cases of severe leptospirosis on Barbados. The other eight strains belonged to a new serovar within the Australis serogroup. The name bajan is proposed for this new serovar of Leptospira interrogans. | ||
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| "Leptospires in Rattus spp. on Barbados." | ||
| Taylor, K. D., L. H. Turner, et al. | 1991 | J Trop Med Hyg 94(2): 102-3. |
| Among 138 Rattus norvegicus and 98 R. rattus trapped on Barbados in 1964-65 and examined for evidence of leptospiral infection, seropositivity prevalence rates were similar (34 and 30%, respectively), but isolation/dark field microscopy rates were higher in R. norvegicus (27%) than R. rattus (15%). R. norvegicus carried mainly serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae and R. rattus mainly serogroup Autumnalis. These two serogroups cause 90% of severe human leptospirosis on the island. | ||
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| "Leptospires in the whistling frog (Eleutherodactylus johnstonei) on Barbados." | ||
| Everard, C. O., D. G. Carrington, et al. | 1990 | J Trop Med Hyg 93(2): 140-5. |
| Two groups of whistling frogs (Eleutherodactylus johnstonei) comprising 99 and 117 animals were examined for leptospiral infection. Group I animals were caught in 14 areas of Barbados, and Group II animals in seven areas of suburban Bridgetown. Leptospires were isolated from the kidneys or body fluid of six frogs in Group I and the kidneys of 3 frogs in Group II. Two of the Group I isolates died out; the others were identified as bajan (a new serovar in the Australis serogroup) (6) and bim (Autumnalis) (1). The macerated body tissues and fluid of Group I frogs were put into phosphate buffered saline and examined by the microscopic agglutination test using 22 antigens. The results were all negative. For the Group II frogs the methodology was altered; blood was collected onto filter paper discs and allowed to dry out before being agitated in PBS and examined by the MAT. 15/117 (12.8%) animals were positive at greater than or equal to 1:100 and 19 (16.2%) at greater than or equal to 1:50. The geometric mean titre was 179. Seventeen of the sera reacted predominantly to antigens in the Australis serogroup, and two to Pyrogenes on its own. The serological results reflected the identity of the isolates. Serovars of Australis are not known to cause illness on Barbados, but bim is the commonest cause of severe leptospirosis on the island. | ||
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| "Serological survey for leptospiral antibodies in goats in St Elizabeth Parish, Jamaica, 1985-1986." | ||
| Johnachan, P. M., G. S. Smith, et al. | 1990 | Trop Anim Health Prod 22(3): 171-7. |
| A serological survey of goats in St Elizabeth Parish, Jamaica, comprising the breeding herd at the Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC) facility at Hounslow, five commercial herds and 21 family herds was carried out in 1985-1986. The Leptospira microscopic agglutination test indicated that one or more serovars in the Canicola serogroup were the most prevalent. Repeated samplings of goats at ADC, Hounslow demonstrated an increase in portlandvere and canicola seropositive animals following the onset of warmer weather and of icterohaemorrhagiae seropositive animals following the autumn rains and cooler weather. Apart from a cluster of family goats seropositive to pomona there was no geographical separation of reactors to the other serovars tested in the parish. | ||
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| "Leptospirosis in piggery workers on Trinidad." | ||
| Everard, C. O., G. A. Ferdinand, et al. | 1989 | J Trop Med Hyg 92(4): 253-8. |
| Of 133 cases of human leptospirosis recorded in Trinidad between 1977 and the end of February 1982, at least eight (6%) were in people who worked on pig farms. Three of the eight died, and their presumptive infecting serogroups were Icterohaemorrhagiae (3), Canicola (2), Pyrogenes (2) and Grippotyphosa (1). Six of the eight cases were followed up. Altogether, sera from 201 pigs, 78 other livestock animals, 38 workers and 34 dogs were tested for leptospiral agglutinins. The seropositivity prevalence among pigs on farms with human illness (43% greater than or equal to 1:100) was similar to that in pigs from farms not associated with illness (46%), but the titres among the former group (geometric mean 209.5) were higher than among the latter (91.5), where only titres less than or equal to 1:400 were recorded. Similar infecting serogroups were recorded among pigs on the two groups of farms, with Icterohaemorrhagiae, Autumnalis, Canicola and Pyrogenes most frequently recorded overall. There was little evidence of the pig-adapted serogroups Pomona and Tarassovi. Twelve of 13 workers (93%) from a farm on which at least two other people had contracted leptospirosis had serological evidence of exposure, compared with seven of 24 (29%) on a neighbouring farm not associated with human illness. Dogs and rodents are thought to be the major sources of leptospirosis in pigs and piggery workers in Trinidad. | ||
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| "Leptospires in the marine toad (Bufo marinus) on Barbados." | ||
| Everard, C. O., D. Carrington, et al. | 1988 | J Wildl Dis 24(2): 334-8. |
| Leptospires were isolated from the kidneys of four of 211 toads (Bufo marinus) caught on Barbados. Two of the isolates were identified as Leptospira interrogans serovar bim in the Autumnalis serogroup (the most common cause of leptospiral illness on Barbados), and two as possibly new serovars in the Australis serogroup. Sera from 198 of the toads were examined by the leptospire microscopic agglutination test. Forty-two (21%) were positive at titers of greater than or equal to 1:100, and 54 (27%) at greater than or equal to 1:50. The predominating serogroups were Australis (50%), Autumnalis (23%) and Panama (13%). The agglutination tests on the culture-positive toads showed that serologic studies alone may be of limited value in these animals. Bufo marinus can harbor pathogenic leptospires, and it may be a significant source of the Autumnalis serogroup infections in the Caribbean. | ||
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| "Seroprevalence of leptospiral antibodies in the Jamaican livestock population." | ||
| Grant, G. H., G. Smith, et al. | 1988 | Vet Rec 122(17): 419-20. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Leptospires in vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops Sabaeus) on Barbados." | ||
| Baulu, J., C. O. Everard, et al. | 1987 | J Wildl Dis 23(1): 60-6. |
| Agglutinins to Leptospira were found at titers of greater than or equal to 1:100 in 150 of 501 (29.9%) vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus) bled within 1 mo of capture in Barbados. Including a further 34 of 145 bled within 1 yr of capture, the seropositivity prevalence was 28.5%. A further 35 monkeys (5.4%) had traces of agglutinins or gave titers of 1:50. The proportion of seropositive adults (41.5%) was more than twice that of seropositive immature monkeys (17.6%). Among adults, 49.2% of males and 35.7% of females were seropositive, while among juveniles proportions of seropositive males and females were similar (17.8% and 17.4%, respectively). Seropositivity prevalences tended to increase in proportion to rainfall. In each of 165 of the 184 positive sera, a single serogroup predominated in the serological reactions. These serogroups were Ballum (61%), Icterohaemorrhagiae (16%), Autumnalis (15%), Pyrogenes, Panama, Pomona, Tarassovi and Canicola (8% altogether). In the other 19 positive sera no single serogroup predominated. Serial bleeding showed that vervet monkeys can retain naturally-acquired antibodies to Leptospira for at least 2.5 yr. The evidence suggests that vervet monkeys in Barbados are transmitting leptospiral infections among themselves independently of other groups of animals, and are not a major source of human leptospirosis. | ||
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| "Serological studies on leptospirosis in livestock and chickens from Grenada and Trinidad." | ||
| Everard, C. O., G. M. Fraser-Chanpong, et al. | 1985 | Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 79(6): 859-64. |
| Sera from 1,206 livestock animals and chickens on Grenada and Trinidad were tested for leptospiral antibodies by the microscopic agglutination test. 376 of the sera were positive (25% of those tested on Grenada and 44% on Trinidad). The positive sera were obtained from 25% of 324 cattle, 35% of 130 pigs, 35% of 146 sheep, 25% of 44 goats and 11% of 175 chickens on Grenada; and 92% of 26 cattle, 53% of 122 pigs, 76% of 87 horses and donkeys and 11% of 144 chickens on Trinidad. Eight sera from ducks and geese on Trinidad were tested and found to be negative. The serogroups most commonly found to react with the sera of the Grenadian animals were Autumnalis, Icterohaemorrhagiae, Hebdomadis and the related serogroups Sejroe and Mini, and Pyrogenes; in the Trinidadian animals they were Icterohaemorrhagiae, Autumnalis, Hebdomadis and its related serogroups, and Panama. Strains of serogroup Pomona do not appear to have become established as livestock pathogens on the islands. | ||
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| "Bim, a new serovar of Leptospira interrogans isolated from a dog in Barbados." | ||
| Jones, C. J., K. R. Sulzer, et al. | 1984 | J Clin Microbiol 19(6): 946. |
| A new serovar of Leptospira interrogans was isolated from a dog in Barbados. The proposed name of the new serovar is bim, and the designated type strain is 1051. The serogroup of the new serovar is the Autumnalis serogroup. The new serovar was subsequently isolated from six patients with leptospirosis in Barbados. | ||
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| "Leptospires in wildlife from Trinidad and Grenada." | ||
| Everard, C. O., G. M. Fraser-Chanpong, et al. | 1983 | J Wildl Dis 19(3): 192-9. |
| Serum samples from 894 wild animals (representing 31 species) from Trinidad and Grenada were examined by the microscopic agglutination test for leptospiral antibodies; 198 were positive. These included 39 bats, 88 mongooses, six opossums, 10 peridomestic rodents, 15 forest rodents, 10 lizards, and 30 toads. Thirteen pathogenic serogroups were involved. Thirty-nine Leptospira isolates were reported from mongooses, opossums, rodents and toads. | ||
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| "Endemic strains of pathogenic Leptospirae isolated in Latin America and the Caribbean." | ||
| Macedo, S. L., R. I. Cornide, et al. | 1983 | Rev Cubana Med Trop 35(2): 186-92. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Canine leptospirosis in Puerto Rico." | ||
| Farrington, N. P. and K. R. Sulzer | 1982 | Int J Zoonoses 9(1): 45-50. |
| Among 116 stray dogs in Puerto Rico surveyed for leptospiral agglutinins, 73 (62.9%) has significant titers to one or more leptospiral serotypes. The most common serogroup identified serologically was icterohaemorrhagiae accounting for 53 (72.6%) of the infections. Although the infection rates were comparable for male and female dogs the older were found to be more frequently infected. The significance of the canine in the epidemiology of leptospirosis in Puerto Rico is probably of paramount importance due to the extensive direct and indirect contact dogs have with rats and the human population. | ||
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| "Pathogenic Leptospira isolates from the Caribbean Island of Barbados." | ||
| Jones, C. J., K. D. Taylor, et al. | 1982 | Int J Zoonoses 9(2): 138-46. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Leptospirosis: a review of the Jamaican experience compared with other Caribbean territories." | ||
| Segree, W., M. Fitz-Henly, et al. | 1982 | West Indian Med J 31(2): 54-60. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Leptospirosis: a review of the Jamaican experience compared with other Caribbean territories." | ||
| Segree, W., M. Fitz-Henly, et al. | 1982 | West Indian Med J 31(2): 54-60. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Pathogenic leptospira isolates from the Caribbean Islands of Trinidad, Grenada and St. Vincent." | ||
| Everard, C. O., C. R. Sulzer, et al. | 1980 | Int J Zoonoses 7(2): 90-100. |
| All known isolates of Leptospira interrogans obtained in Trinidad, Grenada and St. Vincent up to the end of 1979 are listed. There were 80 from Trinidad, 20 from Grenada and 2 from St. Vincent, representing at least 20 serotypes from 11 or more serogroups. Six of the serotypes were first reported from Trinidad. The leptospires were isolated from man, domestic animals and wildlife species. | ||
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| "Leptospirosis in dogs and cats on the Island of Trinidad: West Indies." | ||
| Everard, C. O., E. P. Cazabon, et al. | 1979 | Int J Zoonoses 6(1): 33-40. |
| Confirming previous observations on dog populations in other parts of the world, notably Japan, the Philippine Islands, and some countries in South America, we found that a high percentage of dogs in Trinidad are infected with organisms from many serogroups of Leptospira. Serogroups Canicola and Icterohaemorrhagiae were most commonly found. Ten isolates obtained from 50 kidneys from stray dogs (20% infectivity rate) were typed as portland-vere (six) and canicola (two) of the Canicola serogroup, copenhageni of the Icterohaemorrhagiae serogroup (one), and georgia in the Hebdomadis serogroup (one). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first record of a serotype in the Hebdomadis serogroup being isolated from a dog. A cat isolation was identified as canicola. Serological results showed that 55% or more of stray dogs had been exposed as opposed to only 12.5% of the cats examined. Serogroups Canicola, Icterohaemorrhagiae and Hebdomadis are found most frequently in dogs, cats, mongooses, and man in Trinidad. | ||
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Rabies | ||
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| Vaccination of Small Asian Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) Against Rabies | ||
| Blanton JD, Meadows A, et al | 2006 | J Wildl Dis. 2006 Jul;42(3):663-6. |
| Oral vaccination of free-ranging wildlife is a promising technique in rabies control. The small Asian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) is an important reservoir of rabies on several Caribbean islands, but no vaccines have been evaluated for this species. Captive mongooses were used to test the safety and efficacy of the commercially licensed vaccinia-rabies glycoprotein (V-RG) recombinant vaccine and a newly developed genetically engineered oral rabies virus vaccine (SPBNGA-S). In one study using V-RG, no vaccinated animals developed detectable rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies, and all but one died after experimental challenge with rabies virus. In contrast, all animals given SPBNGA-S demonstrated seroconversion within 7 to 14 days after vaccination and survived rabies virus challenge. On the basis of these preliminary results indicating the greater efficacy of SPBNGA-S vs. V-RG vaccine, additional investigations will be necessary to determine the optimal dose and duration of vaccination, as well as incorporation of the SPBNGA-S vaccine into edible bait. | ||
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| A molecular epidemiological study of rabies in Cuba | ||
| Nadin-Davis SA, Torres G, et al | 2006 | Epidemiol Infect. 2006 Dec;134(6):1313-24 |
| To investigate the emergence and current situation of terrestrial rabies in Cuba, a collection of rabies virus specimens was employed for genetic characterization. These data supported the monophyletic nature of all terrestrial rabies viruses presently circulating in Cuba but additionally delineated several distinct variants exhibiting limited spatial distribution which may reflect the history of rabies spread on the island. The strain of rabies currently circulating in Cuba, which emerged on the island in the early 20th century, has very close evolutionary ties to the Mexican dog type and is a member of the cosmopolitan lineage widely distributed during the colonial period. The Cuban rabies viruses, which circulate predominantly within the mongoose population, are phylogenetically distant from viruses circulating in mongooses in other parts of the world. These studies illustrate, at a global level, the adaptation of multiple strains of rabies to mongoose species which should be regarded as important wildlife hosts for rabies re-emergence. Given the recent emergence of human cases due to bat contact in Cuba, this study also included a single insectivorous bat specimen which was found to most closely resemble the rabies viruses known to circulate in Mexican vampire bats. | ||
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| "Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2004." | ||
| Krebs, J. W., E. J. Mandel, et al. | 2005 | J Am Vet Med Assoc 227(12): 1912-25. |
| During 2004, 49 states and Puerto Rico reported 6,836 cases of rabies in nonhuman animals and 8 cases in human beings to the CDC, representing a 4.6% decrease from the 7,170 cases in nonhuman animals and 3 cases in human beings reported in 2003. Approximately 92% of the cases were in wildlife, and 8% were in domestic animals (compared with 91% and 9%, respectively, in 2003). Relative contributions by the major animal groups were as follows: 2,564 raccoons (37.5%), 1,856 skunks (27.1%), 1,361 bats (19.9%), 389 foxes (5.7%), 281 cats (4.1%), 115 cattle (1.7%), and 94 dogs (1.4%). Compared with the numbers of reported cases in 2003, cases in 2004 decreased among all groups, except bats, cattle, human beings, and "other domestics" (1 llama). Decreases in numbers of rabid raccoons during 2004 were reported by 12 of the 20 eastern states in which raccoon rabies was enzootic. In the East, Massachusetts reported the first cases of raccoon rabies detected beyond the Cape Cod oral rabies vaccine barrier. Along the western edge of the raccoon rabies epizootic (Ohio in the north and Tennessee in the south), cases of rabies were reported from unexpected new foci beyond oral rabies vaccine zones. On a national level, the number of rabies cases in skunks during 2004 decreased by 12.1% from the number reported in 2003. Once again, Texas reported the greatest number (n = 534) of rabid skunks and the greatest overall state total of rabies cases (913). Texas reported only 1 case of rabies in a dog that was infected with the dog/coyote rabies virus variant and only 22 cases associated with theTexas gray fox rabies virus variant (compared with 61 cases in 2003). The total number of cases of rabies reported nationally in foxes and raccoons declined 14.7% and 2.7%, respectively, during 2004. The 1,361 cases of rabies reported in bats during 2004 represented a 12.3% increase over the previous year's total of 1,212 cases for this group of mammals. Cases of rabies reported in cats, dogs, horses and mules, and sheep and goats decreased 12.5%, 19.7%, 31.8%, and 16.7%, respectively, whereas cases reported in cattle increased 174%. In Puerto Rico, reported cases of rabies in mongooses decreased 4.1% and rabies in dogs (9 cases) remained unchanged from those reported in 2003. Among the 8 cases of rabies in human beings, 1 person from Oklahoma and 3 from Texas died following receipt of infected organs and tissues from an Arkansas donor. In California, a person originally from El Salvador and, in Florida, a person originally from Haiti both died of canine rabies infections acquired outside the United States. In Wisconsin, a teenager contracted rabies from a bat bite and became the first known person to survive rabies despite not having received rabies vaccine prior to symptom onset. | ||
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| "The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) role in the control of rabies in Latin America." | ||
| Belotto, A. J. | 2004 | Dev Biol (Basel) 119: 213-6. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Evaluation of the clinical manifestations in patients with reactions to the rabies vaccine or serum in the Ciego de Avila province (Cuba)." | ||
| Suarez Hernandez, M., F. Diaz Venegas, et al. | 2004 | Rev Clin Esp 204(3): 139-44. |
| The present design is a descriptive study in which people bitten by animals, rabies treatment used and the reactions to it are described. The frequency of adverse effects to the vaccine and to the serum are pointed out. The forms of clinical presentation and the clinical symptoms of the reactions observed in the Ciego de Avila province, Cuba, in the period from 1981 to 2001, were evaluated. In this period prevailed the reactions to the heterologous serum and the reactions caused by the human rabies vaccine. Local reactions to the vaccine were more common than the systemic ones. Four neuroparalytic reactions produced by the vaccines were observed. The most frequent symptoms and signs of the patients with reaction to the vaccine were pruritus, rash, localized urticaria, papule in the point of injection and local pain.The clinical manifestations considered as reactions to the heterologous serum that prevailed in the patients were rash in gluteal regions, pruritus, local erythyema and fever. No patient was detected with neurological manifestations caused by the heterologous serum. | ||
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| "Rabies among infrequently reported mammalian carnivores in the United States, 1960-2000." | ||
| Krebs, J. W., S. M. Williams, et al. | 2003 | J Wildl Dis 39(2): 253-61. |
| Most cases of rabies reported annually in the United States occur among three groups of carnivores--raccoons (Procyon lotor), skunks (Mephitis, Spilogale, and Putorius), foxes (Vulpes, Urocyon, and Alopex)--and among bats (numerous species). However, between 1960 and 2000, a total of 2,851 cases of rabies in 17 other carnivore taxa were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia (USA), from 49 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Three species of these other carnivores (mongooses [Herpestes javanicus], coyotes [Canis latrans], and bobcats [Lynx rufus]) accounted for 92% (2,624/2,851) of the cases reported among other canivorous mammals (OCMs). Most OCMs demonstrated temporal or spatial variation in numbers of reported cases. Tests of specimens from OCMs infected in the United States identified variants of the rabies virus that corresponded with variants associated with the major terrestrial reservoirs within their respective regions of origin. Variants of the rabies virus in samples from mongooses in Puerto Rico could not be distinguished from those in samples from dogs in Puerto Rico by virus typing methods. | ||
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| "Molecular characterization of rabies virus isolates from Trinidad." | ||
| Wright, A., J. Rampersad, et al. | 2002 | Vet Microbiol 87(2): 95-102. |
| Bovine rabies continues to be a serious problem facing the cattle industry in South and Central America. Although Trinidad played an important role in originally demonstrating the link between bats and bovine rabies, relatively little is known about rabies in Trinidad, an island 7miles off the coast of Venezuela. In order to obtain a more complete understanding of bovine rabies in the region, we report herein on a study undertaken in Trinidad to characterize isolates of rabies virus obtained from infected cattle. A portion of the nucleotide sequence of the nucleoprotein gene from six rabies virus isolates collected from bovine rabies from the years 1997, 1998 and 2000 was determined and compared both to themselves and the nucleotide sequence of other South American isolates. Results indicate that there are at least two independently evolving variants of rabies virus in Trinidad. The nucleotide sequence of either variant failed to match completely the sequence of South American isolates. However, the lack of South American isolates from coastal regions facing Trinidad leaves undetermined the question of South American influence on rabies in Trinidad. The results of this study helps complete the picture of bovine rabies in the South American region and provide basic information required locally for the creation of an effective rabies control and eradication strategy. | ||
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| "Discrimination between epidemiological cycles of rabies in Mexico." | ||
| Loza-Rubio, E., A. Aguilar-Setien, et al. | 1999 | Arch Med Res 30(2): 144-9. |
| BACKGROUND: The design of efficient rabies control programs within a geographic area requires an appropriate knowledge of the local epidemiological cycles. In Latin America, there is a geographical overlap of the two main epidemiological cycles: (a) the terrestrial cycle, where the dog is the main terrestrial vector and the principal cause of human transmission; and (b) the aerial cycle, in which the vampire bat Desmodus rotundus is representative in Mexico. This bat is the major sylvatic rabies vector transmitting rabies to cattle. The purpose of this study was to distinguish between the epidemiological cycles of rabies virus (aerial and terrestrial) circulating in Mexico, using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). METHODS: Thirty positive rabies isolates were obtained from different species (including humans, domestic, and wildlife animals) and geographical regions. The methodology included the extraction of RNA, and synthesis of cDNA, PCR, and RFLP using four restriction endonucleases. To determine the aerial cycle, BsaW I and BsrG I were utilized, and for terrestrial cycle, BamH I and Stu I. Most of the samples belonged to the aerial and terrestrial cycles, except for two skunk isolates from Northwestern Mexico, which were not cut by any of the enzymes. RESULTS: Three different migration patterns were detected: (a) the first was observed in six amplicons, which were cut by BsaW I and BsrG I (aerial cycle); (b) 19 amplified samples were digested with BamH I and Stu I enzymes (terrestrial cycle); and (c) two skunk isolates from Northwest Mexico, were not cut by any of the enzymes utilized in the experiments (hypervariable cycle). CONCLUSIONS: This concludes that RFLP can be used for the classification of rabies field samples in epidemiological studies. Moreover, it has demonstrated its usefulness, not only for differentiating between the main epidemiological rabies cycles present in Mexico, but also to detect new cycles in wildlife species. | ||
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| "Genetic characterization of rabies field isolates from Venezuela." | ||
| de Mattos, C. A., C. C. de Mattos, et al. | 1996 | J Clin Microbiol 34(6): 1553-8. |
| Twenty samples from cases of rabies in humans and domestic animals diagnosed in Venezuela between 1990 and 1994 and one sample from a vampire bat collected in 1976 were characterized by reactivity to monoclonal antibodies against the viral nucleoprotein and by patterns of nucleotide substitution in the nucleoprotein gene. Three antigenic variants were found: 1, 3, and 5. Antigenic variant 1 included all samples from dogs and humans infected by contact with rabid dogs. Unique substitutions permitted identification of two separate outbreaks of dog rabies in the Maracaibo Depression and Los Llanos region and in the Andean region of Venezuela. Samples from the vampire bat and two head of cattle were characterized as antigenic variant 3 and showed a nucleotide sequence homology of 96 to 98% to each other and to samples of vampire bat-associated rabies throughout Latin America. Ten of the remaining 12 samples were characterized as antigenic variant 5. Genetic studies indicated that 11 of these samples formed a highly homologous and distinctive group but were closely related to samples of vampire bat-associated rabies. The 12th sample of variant 5 (from a cat) showed only 78 to 80% genetic homology to samples of rabies associated with vampire bats. The application of antigenic and genetic typing to rabies surveillance in Latin America is essential to improve control programs. Recognition of the source of outbreaks of dog rabies and identification of wildlife species maintaining sylvatic cycles of rabies transmission permit better utilization of public health resources. | ||
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| "Prevention and elimination of rabies in Latin America: meeting of national program directors." | ||
| No Author Specified | 1995 | Bull Pan Am Health Organ 29(2): 168-71. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Human rabies: a continuing challenge in the tropical world." | ||
| Warrell, D. A. and M. J. Warrell | 1995 | Schweiz Med Wochenschr 125(18): 879-85. |
| More than 99% of all human rabies deaths in the world occur in tropical developing countries. In India alone, 30,000 to 50,000 people may die of rabies each year. The Lyssaviruses (Family Rhabdoviridae) include rabies and rabies-related viruses, 3 of which have caused human disease. Rabies is a zoonosis, principally affecting domestic and stray dogs in most parts of Africa, Asia and Latin America. In North America, southern Africa, parts of the Caribbean and Europe, the principal mammalian reservoir species are wild carnivores. The pathogenesis, clinical features and differential diagnosis of rabies are discussed. The planning of rabies control strategies requires background information on the distribution and incidence of rabies in animals and the species involved. In some parts of the world, such as Latin American cities, most domestic dogs, even apparent strays, have an owner and can be immunized with conventional canine vaccines during well publicized campaigns. However, in areas such as India, where there may be a high proportion of stray domestic dogs without owners, and in those areas where wild mammals are the principal reservoir species, immunization may be possible using live attenuated or recombinant oral vaccines distributed in baits. In the poor tropical developing countries, unsatisfactory nervous tissue vaccines are still widely used. However, economical multisite intradermal regimens using tissue culture vaccines have proved effective and have begun to replace nervous tissue vaccines in some countries. | ||
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| "Puerto Rico and rabies." | ||
| Cappucci, D. T., Jr., J. L. Armstrong, et al. | 1994 | J Am Vet Med Assoc 205(3): 402. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Field evaluation of baits and baiting strategies for delivering oral vaccine to mongooses in Antigua, West Indies." | ||
| Creekmore, T. E., S. B. Linhart, et al. | 1994 | J Wildl Dis 30(4): 497-505. |
| A field study was conducted on Antigua, West Indies, to determine the feasibility of delivering an oral rabies vaccine or population control agent to free-ranging mongooses (Herpestes javanicus). Two biomarkers (tetracycline hydrochloride [THCL] and DuPont Oil Blue A dye) and two bait types (DuPont polymer fish meal and polyurethane foam) were used to bait three study sites. Four hundred polymer baits containing both biomarkers were distributed at 36 central point bait stations (11 baits/station) on an 80 ha study site (5 baits/ha); 69% of the mongoose population consumed one or more baits. Two thousand baits containing THCL and 400 baits containing DuPont dye were distributed on two additional 100 ha study sites (24 baits/ha). Polymer fish meal baits were used on the first site and polyurethane baits on the second site. Based on the presence of biomarkers in bone or soft tissue, 96 to 97% of the mongooses at both sites consumed at least one bait. We conclude that oral baiting of mongooses is a feasible method for delivery of vaccines for the control of rabies in this species. | ||
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| "Antigenic analysis of rabies-virus isolates from Latin America and the Caribbean." | ||
| Diaz, A. M., S. Papo, et al. | 1994 | Zentralbl Veterinarmed B 41(3): 153-60. |
| A total of 288 rabies-virus samples from 17 Latin American and Caribbean countries were reacted with an array of monoclonal antibodies. Identification of eight distinct antigenic variants among these samples permitted epidemiologic studies of the geographic distribution of different concentrations of rabies in the region and of the animal species serving as maintenance sources for rabies within a concentrated area. Two variants were broadly distributed and associated with enzootic disease in dogs and vampire bats. All isolates from cases of human rabies contained one of these two variants. Two variants had a limited distribution: an outbreak in Brazil, primarily affecting dogs and believed to be maintained by dog-to-dog transmission, and nine cases of rabies in cattle in Venezuela, animal reservoir unknown. A reservoir of rabies in insectivorous bats was identified and the associated variant was found in a rabid domestic cat. The remaining three rabies variants were found in single isolates only, but due to inference from antigenic-typing data from North American samples, were believed to be maintained by reservoirs of rabies in hoary bats, foxes, and skunks. | ||
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| "Urban epizootic of rabies in Mexico: epidemiology and impact of animal bite injuries." | ||
| Eng, T. R., D. B. Fishbein, et al. | 1993 | Bull World Health Organ 71(5): 615-24. |
| From 1 July 1987 to 31 December 1988, a total of 317 animals (91% of which were dogs) were confirmed to have rabies in Hermosillo, Mexico. The median age of rabid dogs was 1 year, 69% were male, and 98% were owned. The epizootic started in the southern areas of the city, rapidly involved the entire city, and persisted mainly in lower socioeconomic status areas. The area of the city and mean household size were significant predictor variables for the population density of rabid dogs around household clusters (Poisson linear regression, P < 0.001 and P = 0.03, resp). Approximately 2.5% of city residents were bitten by dogs in 1987, with the rate of reported dog bite injuries being positively correlated with mean household size and the proportion of households that owned dogs. Visits to the city health centre for evaluation of possible exposures to rabies increased by 135% after the start of the epizootic; approximately 273 per 100,000 city residents were administered a full or partial course of rabies post-exposure prophylaxis in 1987. Children were at greatest risk for exposures to rabies, accounting for 60% of all reported animal bite injuries evaluated at the health centre. Also they were more likely than older persons to have received bite injuries to the head, face, and neck (odds ratio = 21.6, 95% confidence interval = 5.4, 186.5). | ||
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| "Mongoose rabies in the Caribbean." | ||
| Everard, C. O. and J. D. Everard | 1992 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 653: 356-66. |
| Mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) have been introduced into most of the larger Caribbean islands, some notable exceptions being Dominica, Tobago, and Montserrat. Rabies in Caribbean mongooses is present in Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic (and presumably Haiti), and Grenada. Bat rabies is known on Cuba, Grenada, and Trinidad, although mongooses found on Trinidad are free of the disease. None of the other islands is known to have rabies, although it could be present in sequestered bat populations. All reported case numbers of mongoose rabies in the Caribbean are underestimates, and available information is at best incomplete and at times fragmentary. Nevertheless, data are presented from the four affected islands. Mongoose reduction campaigns have been undertaken on Cuba and Grenada. In Cuba strychnine sulfate inoculated into labeled eggs is used, whereas in Grenada sodium fluoroacetate (1080) has been used in boiled cowhide baits. Mongoose poisoning is unsatisfactory and ineffective in the long-term. Because many mongooses naturally exposed to rabies virus develop serum neutralizing antibodies and are considered to be immunized, possibly for life, vaccination in the wild has been under consideration since the mid-1970s. Early attempts to produce a pill coated with ERA vaccine for enteric absorption in mongooses were not very successful, but new modified vaccines and recombinant techniques hold considerable promise. | ||
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| "Rabies reference vaccine for use as a regional standard for Latin America and the Caribbean countries." | ||
| Diaz, A. M., R. A. Miller, et al. | 1990 | Biologicals 18(4): 281-7. |
| A candidate rabies reference vaccine of suckling mouse brain (SMB) origin was prepared and standardized at the Pan American Zoonoses Center (PAHO/WHO) and evaluated in a collaborative study involving seven laboratories. On the basis of three different tests, its potency, immunogenicity, and stability were demonstrated to be satisfactory. The vaccine was proposed for consideration of the Latin American and Caribbean countries as a regional standard to determine the potency of SMB vaccines, the most widely used in the Region. | ||
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| "Rabies reference vaccine for use as a regional standard for Latin America and the Caribbean countries." | ||
| Diaz, A. M., R. A. Miller, et al. | 1990 | Biologicals 18(4): 281-7. |
| A candidate rabies reference vaccine of suckling mouse brain (SMB) origin was prepared and standardized at the Pan American Zoonoses Center (PAHO/WHO) and evaluated in a collaborative study involving seven laboratories. On the basis of three different tests, its potency, immunogenicity, and stability were demonstrated to be satisfactory. The vaccine was proposed for consideration of the Latin American and Caribbean countries as a regional standard to determine the potency of SMB vaccines, the most widely used in the Region. | ||
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| "Program for the elimination of urban rabies in Latin America." | ||
| Escobar Cifuentes, E. | 1988 | Rev Infect Dis 10 Suppl 4: S689-92. |
| The status of rabies in Latin America and the Caribbean is described. The probable evolution of rabies is described. The probable evolution of rabies is analyzed, especially with respect to the effect of urbanization in the large cities of the hemisphere and its possible impact on the epidemiology of urban rabies. Several alternatives for the control of rabies are discussed, as are the strategies for their implementation at the continental, subregional, and country levels. | ||
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| "Human exposure to animal rabies in Puerto Rico, 1980-1983." | ||
| Rigau-Perez, J. G., B. J. Marques-Diaz, et al. | 1985 | Bol Asoc Med P R 77(7): 278-85. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Ten years of rabies surveillance in Grenada, 1968-1977." | ||
| Everard, C. O., A. C. James, et al. | 1979 | Bull Pan Am Health Organ 13(4): 342-53. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Rabies virus and antibody in bats in Grenada and Trinidad." | ||
| Price, J. L. and C. O. Everard | 1977 | J Wildl Dis 13(2): 131-4. |
| Rabies virus was detected by fluorescent-antibody and mouse inoculation tests in the brain of one bat, Artibeus jamaicensis, collected at La Tante, Grenada on 19 June 1974. No rabies virus was found in the brains and/or salivary glands of 411 other Grenadian bats of 6 species tested, including 56 A. jamaicensis. Rabies neutralizing antibody was detected by the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT) in 27 of 353 Grenadian bats. Positives occurred in each of the 6 species sampled, with 40.5% prevalence in A. jamaicensis. In 11 of 86 Trinidadian bats of 4 species known to carry rabies, positive sera occurred only in A. jamaicensis (18.6%) and A. lituratus (18.1%). The potential use of the REFIT indetermining rabies activity is discussed. | ||
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| "Epidemiology of mongoose rabies in Grenada." | ||
| Everard, C. O. and G. M. Baer | 1974 | J Wildl Dis 10(3): 190-6. |
| No abstract available | ||
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Other zoonosis | ||
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| "Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in pregnant women and cats in Grenada, West Indies" | ||
| Asthana, S.P., C.N. Macpherson, et al. | 2006 | J Parasitol. 2006 Jun;92(3):644-5. |
| Prevalence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii was studied in 534 pregnant women and 40 domestic cats in Grenada, West Indies. Antibodies (IgG) for T. gondii were sought in human sera by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and in cat sera by using the modified agglutination test (MAT). Antibodies were found in 57 % of pregnant women. Seroprevalence increased with age; 51% of 15- to 19-yr-old women (100 total) had antibodies versus 60% of 20- to 24-yr-old women (127 total). Antibodies to T. gondii (MAT, 1:25 serum dilution) were found in 35% of cats; titers were 1:25 in 7 cats, 1:50 in 4 cats, and 1:500 in 3 cats. Epidemiological data suggested that the ingestion of food or water contaminated with oocysts was an important mode of transmission of T. gondii to women. | ||
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| "An update on bovine tuberculosis programmes in Latin American and Caribbean countries." | ||
| De Kantor IN, Ritacco V. | 2006 | Vet Microbiol. 2006 Feb 25;112(2-4):111-8. Epub 2005 Nov 28. |
| Of the approximately 374 million cattle in Latin America and the Caribbean, 70% are held in areas where rates of Mycobacterium bovis infection in cattle are higher than 1%. The remaining 30% are in countries where infection affects less than 1% of cattle, including 62 million in countries where bovine tuberculosis infection is virtually nil. Measures for controlling bovine tuberculosis are partially or extensively applied in most of the countries in the Region. These measures are based on test and slaughter, notification, post-mortem inspection and surveillance in slaughterhouses. A coordinated production, standardization and quality control of purified protein derivatives is urgently required for use in control and eradication campaigns in order to assure reliability of reagents and comparability of data on tuberculin testing within the Region. On the basis of information from Argentina, M. bovis is estimated to cause 2% of all human cases of tuberculosis in the Region. Slaughterhouse and dairy farms workers are most-frequently infected, with infection occurring via the respiratory tract. Various in vitro assays for the diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis have been developed and/or assessed in the Region, and DNA fingerprinting has been applied for a comprehensive understanding of the epidemiology of bovine tuberculosis at the local and regional level. | ||
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| "Isolation, tissue distribution, and molecular characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from chickens in Grenada, West Indies" | ||
| Dubey J.R., M.I. Bhaiyat et al. | 2005 | J Parasitol. 2005 Jun;91 (3): 557-60 |
| The prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in free-range chickens is a good indicator of the prevalence of T. gondii oocysts in the soil because chickens feed from the ground. The prevalence of T. gondii in 102 free-range chickens (Gallus domesticus) from Grenada was determined. Antibodies to T. gondii were assayed by the modified agglutination test (MAT). Antibodies were found in 53 (52%) chickens with titers of 1:5 in 6, 1:10 in 4, 1:20 in 4, 1:40 in 4, 1:80 in 15, 1:160 in 9, 1: 320 in 5, 1:640 in 4, and 1:1,280 or greater in 2. Hearts, pectoral muscles, and brains of 43 seropositive chickens with MAT titers of 1:20 or greater were bioassayed individually in mice. Tissues of each of 10 chickens with titers of 1:5 and 1:10 were pooled and bioassayed in mice. Tissues from the remaining 49 seronegative chickens were pooled and fed to 4 T. gondii-free cats. Feces of cats were examined for oocysts; they did not shed oocysts. T. gondii was isolated from 35 of 43 chickens with MAT titers of 1:20 or greater; from the hearts, brains, and pectoral muscles of 2, hearts and brains of 20, from the hearts alone of 11, and brains alone of 2. T. gondii was isolated from 1 of 10 chickens with titers of 1:5 or 1:10. All 36 T. gondii isolates were avirulent for mice. Genotyping of these 36 isolates using polymorphisms at the SAG2 locus indicated that 29 were Type III, 5 were Type I, 1 was Type II, and 1 had both Type I and Type III. Genetically, the isolates from Grenada were different from those from the United States; Type II was the predominant type from the United States. Phenotypically, all isolates from Grenada were avirulent for mice, whereas those from Brazil were mouse-virulent. This is the first report of isolation of T. gondii from chickens from Grenada, West Indies. | ||
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| "Presence of Angiostrongylus cantonensis in Haiti." | ||
| Raccurt, C. P., J. Blaise, et al. | 2003 | Trop Med Int Health 8(5): 423-6. |
| In the West Indies Angiostrongylus cantonensis was found first in Cuba in 1973, then in Puerto Rico (1986), in the Dominican Republic (1992) and recently in Jamaica (2002). Concurrently, the presence of the parasite was detected in the Bahamas and in New Orleans (LA, USA) in 1990. To assess the occurrence of A. cantonensis in Haiti, we investigated a number of rats in Port-au-Prince in 2002. Preliminary results among 23 captured and examined rats show that 75% (three of four) Rattus norvegicus and 21% (four of 19) R. rattus harboured A. cantonensis in their cardiopulmonary systems. Haiti is, for the first time, recognized as a new enzootic area for A. cantonensis in the Caribbean. This emerging zoonosis should be considered as a new public health hazard in Haiti. | ||
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| "Descriptive study of animal attacks and bites in the municipality of San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1996-1998." | ||
| Quiles Cosme, G. M., C. M. Perez-Cardona, et al. | 2000 | P R Health Sci J 19(1): 39-47. |
| The present study described the frequency of animal bites and attacks in the municipality of San Juan, Puerto Rico between the fiscal years 1996 through 1998. A total of 275 cases were reported to the San Juan Local Office of Environmental Health. The distribution of cases by gender was equal, and persons aged 18 years or older had the highest frequency of animal bites and attacks (52.9%). The animal species reported to be involved in the majority of animal bites was the dog (81.1%). Upper extremities were involved in 43% of these injuries. Animal bites caused by dogs were more often reported among male victims (87.4%) (p = 0.031). Approximately 41% of dog bites and attacks and 75% of bites and attacks caused by other animal species were documented as provoked (p = 0.002). More than 75% of the injuries in the head, face or neck involved children < 13 years whereas 65.9% of the injuries in the upper extremities involved adults (> 18 years) (p = 0.001). Animal bites and attacks in the upper extremities were more prominent among injuries caused by an animal species different to the dog (71%) (p < 0.001). We conclude that animal bites and attacks is a public health concern in light of the increasing pet population. Therefore, educational strategies towards the general population must stress careful supervision of the human-animal interaction as well as the general procedures to follow in case of an injury. | ||
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| "Toxoplasma gondii in men and cats in Port-au-Prince (Haiti)." | ||
| Raccurt, C. P., E. Deronnette, et al. | 2000 | Med Trop (Mars) 60(4): 410-1. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Bovine tuberculosis in Latin America and the Caribbean: current status, control and eradication programs." | ||
| de Kantor, I. N. and V. Ritacco | 1994 | Vet Microbiol 40(1-2): 5-14. |
| Out of the approximately 300 million head which constitute the bovine population in Latin America and the Caribbean, 80 million are found in countries where rates of Mycobacterium bovis infection are very low or nil. The remaining 220 million are found in countries with either a moderate to high prevalence or where no recent information is available. Argentina and Brazil, both have huge cattle populations with estimated prevalences higher than 1%, and together may harbour 3.5 million infected cattle. Information on the impact of M. bovis on human health in the Region is scarce and does not include data on infection of children. In Argentina, human tuberculosis of bovine origin was found to be mainly an occupational disease, transmitted by aerosol. Control or eradication has been achieved in several countries in the Region by use of the tuberculin test followed by sacrifice of reactors. In countries such as Cuba, where the prevalence is already very low, area tuberculin testing is being replaced by slaughter surveillance and epidemiological trace-back. Other countries, where the prevalence is high (e.g. Chile, Paraguay, Peru and Argentina), promote regional campaigns based on the decision and active participation of cattle farmers. Recent diagnostic developments based on the in vitro measurement of humoral and cellular immune responses could be an aid in control and eradication campaigns, provided their usefulness is demonstrated in field trials. In heavily infected areas complementary or alternative strategies should also be proposed, aiming at lowering the prevalence rates prior to the application of the test and slaughter method. | ||
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| "Hookworm disease: Puerto Rico's secret killer." | ||
| Maldonado, A. E. | 1993 | P R Health Sci J 12(3): 191-6. |
| Drs. Bailey Ashford and Pedro Gutierrez, with the economic aid of the United States and Puerto Rican governments, were able to implement a program to reduce the incidence of hookworm infestations in Puerto Rico during the turn of the century. The program was conducted in three phases. The first phase consisted of evaluating the prevalence of infestations among the population. The second phase was concerned with treating patients and reducing further infestations. The last phase of the program was the implementation of prevention programs whose goals were to educate the population on the mechanisms of contaminations and to help implement improvements in the waste disposal systems so as to reduce the exposure to contaminated soil. The programs greatly improved the level of health of many Puerto Ricans. The incidence of hookworm infestations was reduced from 90% to 15% among members of the population. The program obtained world-wide recognition and serves as a model for similar programs. | ||
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| "Is leishmaniasis possible in Puerto Rico?" | ||
| Murillo-Solis, J. and J. F. Maldonado-Moll | 1991 | P R Health Sci J 10(1): 5-7. |
| In a survey encompassing eight different ecological regions, Lutzomyia cayennensis puertoricensis was found in five, and L. c. viequesensis in one of 24 sites. The search centered on arboreal microhabitats. These subspecies were the two phlebotomids reported 40 years before by Fairchild and co-workers. In the face of these findings the possibility of leishmaniasis being introduced from the Dominican Republic is discussed. It was concluded that conditions in Puerto Rico do not seem apt for the establishment of the disease. | ||
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| "A survey of intestinal helminths of well-cared-for dogs in Jamaica, and their potential public health significance. " | ||
| Robinson, R. D., D. L. Thompson, et al. | 1989 | J Helminthol 63(1): 32-8. |
| This study investigates the level of helminthic infestation in better-cared-for dogs in a middle-class community in suburban Kingston. A canine zoographic study was conducted, and fresh faecal deposits were collected and analysed for helminth life-cycle stages. The survey indicated that 73% (n = 93) of households in the study area owned one dog or more (mean = 1.4). Resident's attitudes towards canine management suggested that the dog population was, in general, restricted to the residential estate, and most owners claimed to have dewormed their dogs at least as young animals. Of 141 faecal specimens, 58% contained eggs or larvae of one or more of eight helminths: Uncinaria stenocephala (26%), Ancylostoma sp. (23%), Trichuris vulpis (9%), Toxocara canis (8%), Spirocerca lupi (6%), Strongyloides sp. (6%), Apophallus sp. (4%) and taeniids (1%). There was a high level of multiple infection in the host animals, with approximately one fifth of the infected samples containing three or more helminth types. Infection intensity was apparently low, but some dogs harboured heavy worm loads. | ||
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| "Schistosomiasis can be prevented." | ||
| Jordan, P. | 1988 | World Health Forum 9(1): 104-6. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Beach sand nematodes in Guadeloupe: associated public health problems." | ||
| Esterre, P. and F. Agis | 1985 | Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales 78(1): 71-8. |
| During a parasitological investigation in 1982, sparse samples extracted from sand of different frequentation beaches were analysed according to three methods (Baermann, floating, screening). Larva of hookworms of animal origin (Ankylostoma caninum, Ankylostoma tubaeforme, Ankylostoma braziliense and perhaps Ankylostoma ceylanicum) were identified, sometimes in important quantity, just as eggs of Toxocara sp. Clinical cases of cutaneous Larva migrans are frequent in the West Indies, contrary to cases of visceral Larva migrans. Some prophylactic measures are proposed. | ||
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| "Current trends in screwworm myiasis in the Caribbean region." | ||
| Rawlins, S. C. | 1985 | Vet Parasitol 18(3): 241-50. |
| In a random sample of animal producers and animal health personnel, 33% of the respondents in Trinidad, 15% in Guyana, 11% in Suriname and 9% in Jamaica recalled at least one case of human myiasis due to Cochliomyia homivorax (Coquerel). During 1981, respondents in Surinam (88%), Jamaica (90%), Guyana (85%) and Trinidad and Tobago (82%) found at least one case of myiasis in their livestock, occurring mainly in cattle, pigs and dogs. Feral animals, e.g. jaguars, were also found to be infested. The initial wounds were mainly the umbilicus of neonates, and arbitrary wounds, and vampire bites were also affected. Fifty-three to 78% of all respondents examined their livestock daily for wounds and infestation by the screwworm. Annual estimates of losses (in U.S. dollars) due to surveillance and medication ranged from $4.82 to $10.71 per animal. Nationally, these losses amount to $0.30 million (Surinam), $1.02 million (Trinidad and Tobago), $4.33 million (Guyana) and $6.78 million (Jamaica). Figures for other losses, arising from failure to thrive, reduction in milk production and hide injury due to screwworm activity were not available. Most producers found that the greatest screwworm infestation occurred in the wet season, and most described it as second in importance to Boophilus spp. ticks as a pest of livestock, but of greater significance than biting flies, such as tabanids and stable flies. Eradication of the screwworm from the islands of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago can be recommended, but in Surinam and Guyana eradication seems feasible only on the 100-km wide coastal strips where most human and livestock populations exist. | ||
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New World Scewworm myiasis | ||
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| "Case studies of emergency management of screwworm." | ||
| Reichard, R. | 1999 | Rev Sci Tech 18(1): 145-63. |
| Screwworm myiasis, caused by infestation of even minor wounds by the obligative parasitic larval stages of the New World screwworm (NWS) (Cochliomyia hominivorax) or Old World screwworm (OWS) (Chrysomya bezziana) flies, is a major cause of livestock morbidity and mortality in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. The two parasites occur in different hemispheres but are remarkably homologous. Animal health emergencies result from the invasion of new territories by the parasites or, in the case of NWS, reinfestation of areas from which the parasite had been eradicated after great effort and expense. The author reviews the biology of the parasites and the effects of screwworm, in addition to prevention of infestation upon the introduction of animals. Examples of three programmes or events are described. The first is the eradication of previously exotic NWS from an epizootic in Libya before the parasite spread to become enzootic in the Mediterranean Basin and eventually other areas of the Eastern Hemisphere. The second example reviews the serious consequences of the extension of the range of OWS into Iraq where conditions at the time were favourable for propagation and unfavourable for control. The third example describes the NWS programme strategy in North and Central America which, for forty years, has been to progressively achieve eradication and then protection of areas from north to south on that continent, employing the sterile insect technique (SIT). Outbreaks in areas where screwworm has already been eradicated divert costly programme resources and slow progress southwards, and are considered emergencies. Some problems encountered and the solutions found during the height of the eradication programme in Mexico are described. Although to date eradication of screwworms has only been accomplished with the application of SIT, this technique alone will not eradicate the pest. The author describes other elements which are required to control or eradicate screwworms. Programmes for this highly mobile parasite encompass large geographic areas and consequently require active and continuous international participation. | ||
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| "Presence in Cuba of screw worms (Cochliomyia hominivorax) in the livestock." | ||
| Rodriguez Diego, J. G., T. Blandino, et al. | 1996 | Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop 49(3): 223-5. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "The role of botfly myiasis due to Dermatobia hominis L.Jr. (Diptera:Cuterebridae) as a predisposing factor to New World screwworm myiasis (Cochliomyia hominivorax coquerel) (Diptera:Calliphoridae)." | ||
| Ruiz-Martinez, I., F. Gomez, et al. | 1996 | Ann N Y Acad Sci 791: 434-42. |
| In the tropics, the botfly Dermatobia hominis and the NWS Cochliomyia hominivorax are the most important myiasis agents in cattle. It is frequently reported that furuncular lesions due to D. hominis are a predisposing cause for screwworm myiasis. Our results pointed out that only 5.2 to 7.4% of C. hominivorax gravid females oviposited in the offered furuncular lesions. Of 3242 eggs layed on botfly lesions (BFL), only 82 (2.5%) developed to second instar and died. In the flies tested, the furuncular lesions due to Dermatobia were used as food supply in 81.3% of the cases. In our opinion, the role of pH, the microflora associated with BFL, and the foruncular structure were the reasons for this lack of attraction. BFL do not serve as a predisposing factor for screwworm myiasis in the tropics. | ||
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| "Myiasis: the battle continues against screwworm infestation." | ||
| Reichard, R. E., M. Vargas-Teran, et al. | 1992 | World Health Forum 13(2-3): 130-8. |
| The New World screwworm fly (Cochliomyia hominivorax) caused myiasis extensively among livestock in Mexico and the southern third of the USA until eradication was achieved by repeatedly releasing sterile males of the species on a massive scale. The pest appeared in Libya in 1988, the first time it had become established outside the western hemisphere. Because of the threat of myiasis in animals and people, not only in Libya but also elsewhere in Africa and beyond, a concerted campaign of sterile male releases was mounted with strong international support, and the outbreak has been eliminated. Action is continuing against the pest in Central America. | ||
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| "Biological control of insect pests affecting man and animals in the tropics." | ||
| Rawlins, S. C. | 1989 | Crit Rev Microbiol 16(4): 235-52. |
| Biological control of pests affecting the health of man and animals is practiced in various forms throughout the tropics. In this paper, the use of parasitic viruses, bacteria, protozoa, predatory arthropods, and fish against pests such as various mosquitoes, tse tse flies, and screwworm flies as published in the literature are reviewed. Mention is also made of the usefulness and applicability of the sterile insect technique, genetic control by chromosomal aberrations, and the exploitation of various incompatabilities. These are reviewed against the background of the present state of technology and limited resources that exist in many tropical countries. Most authors maintain that due to the relative length of time required to get a biological control system working efficiently, and the perennial nature of most tropical pest species, there is often the need to initially reduce the pest population by conventional means. There will thus be a balance between biological and chemical control in most systems. Emphasis is placed on meeting the urgent need for the exchange of research and development information on biological control of pests affecting man and his animals in the tropics. | ||
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| "Mitochondrial DNA variation among geographical populations of the screwworm fly, Cochliomyia hominivorax." | ||
| Roehrdanz, R. L. and D. A. Johnson | 1988 | J Med Entomol 25(2): 136-41. |
| No abstract available | ||
| Top | ||
| "Current trends in screwworm myiasis in the Caribbean region." | ||
| Rawlins, S. C. | 1985 | Vet Parasitol 18(3): 241-50. |
| In a random sample of animal producers and animal health personnel, 33% of the respondents in Trinidad, 15% in Guyana, 11% in Suriname and 9% in Jamaica recalled at least one case of human myiasis due to Cochliomyia homivorax (Coquerel). During 1981, respondents in Surinam (88%), Jamaica (90%), Guyana (85%) and Trinidad and Tobago (82%) found at least one case of myiasis in their livestock, occurring mainly in cattle, pigs and dogs. Feral animals, e.g. jaguars, were also found to be infested. The initial wounds were mainly the umbilicus of neonates, and arbitrary wounds, and vampire bites were also affected. Fifty-three to 78% of all respondents examined their livestock daily for wounds and infestation by the screwworm. Annual estimates of losses (in U.S. dollars) due to surveillance and medication ranged from $4.82 to $10.71 per animal. Nationally, these losses amount to $0.30 million (Surinam), $1.02 million (Trinidad and Tobago), $4.33 million (Guyana) and $6.78 million (Jamaica). Figures for other losses, arising from failure to thrive, reduction in milk production and hide injury due to screwworm activity were not available. Most producers found that the greatest screwworm infestation occurred in the wet season, and most described it as second in importance to Boophilus spp. ticks as a pest of livestock, but of greater significance than biting flies, such as tabanids and stable flies. Eradication of the screwworm from the islands of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago can be recommended, but in Surinam and Guyana eradication seems feasible only on the 100-km wide coastal strips where most human and livestock populations exist. | ||
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| "Survey of resistance to insecticides among screwworm (Diptera: Calliphoridae) populations from various geographical regions." | ||
| Rawlins, S. C., C. J. Whitten, et al. | 1983 | J Econ Entomol 76(2): 330-6. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Screwworm (Diptera: Calliphoridae) myiasis in the southern Caribbean, and proposals for its management." | ||
| Rawlins, S. C., F. C. Alexander, et al. | 1983 | J Econ Entomol 76(5): 1106-11. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "Screwworm (Diptera: Calliphoridae) myiasis on Curacao: reinvasion after 20 years." | ||
| Tannahill, F. H., J. R. Coppedge, et al. | 1980 | J Med Entomol 17(3): 265-7. |
| No abstract available | ||
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| "The screwworm Cochliomyia hominivorax (Diptera: Calliphoridae) reinfests the island of Curacao, Netherlands Antilles." | ||
| Snow, J. W., J. R. Coppedge, et al. | 1978 | J Med Entomol 14(5): 592-3. |
| Screw-worms (Cochliomyia hominivorax Coquerel) constitute a serious plight for livestock in the New World, because they inflict high losses on animals and man. A survey was done by means of an epizootic surveillance system with geographic squares to check for the presence of the insects in Cuba. Screw-worms were detected in 54.8% of myiasis cases all over the island, affecting various animals species, cattle first, followed by swine, sheep and others. Small injuries appeared to be the main enabling factor for screw-worm development. The reasons for the presence of screw-worms without serious consequences on the Cuban livestock are discussed. | ||
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| "Screwworm fly transmission by wind." | ||
| Nellis, D. W. | 1977 | J Parasitol 63(1): 178-9. |
| No abstract available | ||
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Wildlife and public health | ||
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| "Ticks parasiting reptiles in the Bahamas" | ||
| Durden L.A., C.R. Knapp. | 2005 | Med Vet Entomol. 2005 Sept; 19(3):326-8 |
| Two species of reptile ticks, Amblyomma dissimile Koch and Amblyomma torrei Perez Vigueras (Acari: Ixodidae), are reported from the Bahama Islands for the first time. The widespread neotropical (including the Caribbean and southern Florida) A. dissimile was recovered on Andros Island from three species of reptiles all for the first time: the Andros iguana Cyclura cychlura cychlura Cuvier, the Andros curly tail lizard Leiocephalus carinatus coryi Schmidt, and the Andros boa Epicrates striatus fowleri Sheplan and Schwartz. The iguana tick A. torrei, previously known only from Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Cayman Islands, was recovered in the Exuma Islands from the Exuma iguana Cyclura cychlura figginsi Barbour. Mean numbers of ticks per host were as high as 36.6 on Mangrove Cay, Andros Island, and 25.8 on Pasture Cay in the Exuma Islands. | ||
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| "A longitudinal study of Escherichia coli strains isolated from captive mammals, birds, and reptiles in Trinidad." | ||
| Gopee, N. V., A. A. Adesiyun, et al. | 2000 | J Zoo Wildl Med 31(3): 353-60. |
| A longitudinal study was conducted of the prevalence and characteristics of Escherichia coli in mammals, birds, and reptiles housed at the Emperor Valley Zoo, Trinidad. During a 6-mo study period, swabs were obtained from fecal samples that were randomly collected from the enclosures of animals from these three taxonomic groups every 3 wk. With snakes, both cloacal and fecal swabs were obtained. Fecal and cloacal swabs were cultured for E. coli on eosin methylene blue agar. The production of mucoid colonies and hemolytic colonies and non-sorbitol fermenter status were identified. The occurrence of O157 strains was determined amongst E. coli isolates that were non-sorbitol fermenters, and the disc diffusion method was used to determine the antibiograms of isolates. The frequency of E. coli isolation was significantly higher in mammals compared with birds and reptiles. Overall, the frequencies of isolation of E. coli from omnivores. herbivores, and carnivores, 87.2%, 70.0%, and 57.3%, respectively, regardless of animal class, were significantly different. Most (99.6%) of the E. coli isolates tested for antibiotic sensitivity exhibited resistance to one or more of the eight antimicrobial agents used. The possession of phenotypic virulence markers by the E. coli isolates studied and the generally high resistance to antimicrobial agents may have health implications for the zoological collection. | ||
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| "Some bacterial enteropathogens in wildlife and racing pigeons from Trinidad." | ||
| Adesiyun, A. A., N. Seepersadsingh, et al. | 1998 | J Wildl Dis 34(1): 73-80. |
| Fecal and cloacal swabs or feces of wild mammalian, avian and reptilian species, either farmed or free-ranging, and of racing pigeons (Columba livia) kept in lofts were cultured for Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., and Yersinia spp. Of 291 free-ranging mammals tested, 6 (2%) and 1 (< 1%) yielded positive cultures of Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp., respectively. Salmonella newport was the predominant serotype isolated and the opossum (Didelphis marsupialis insularis) had the significantly highest prevalence (29%) of Salmonella spp. infection compared to other species such as deer (Mazama americana trinitatis), lappe (Agouti paca), tattoo (Dasypus novemcinctus), agouti (Dasyprocta leporina), and wild hog (Tayassu tajacu). Among 14 species of farmed wildlife studied, 13 (7%) and 10 (5%) of 184 fecal or cloacal samples tested were positive for Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp., respectively. Salmonella javiana accounted for 50% of the Salmonella spp. isolates and C. jejuni represented 90% of the Campylobacter spp. cultured. Only 1 (1%) of 124 cloacal swabs of free-flying avian species yielded Salmonella spp. compared to 21 (17%) samples positive for Campylobacter spp. Of 171 racing pigeons which originated from 8 fanciers, 8 (5%) yielded Salmonella spp. all of which were serotype typhimurium while only 1 (1%) was positive for Campylobacter spp. Seven (88%) of 8 Salmonella spp. isolates were recovered from one fancier. Yersinia spp. was not cultured from any of the above samples. Although the prevalences of Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. in wildlife in Trinidad are low, the practice of wildlife farming and the increased consumption of meat from wildlife may increase the health risk to human consumers. | ||
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Ethnoveterinary medicine | ||
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| "Medicinal and ethnoveterinary remedies of hunters in Trinidad." | ||
| Lans, C., T. Harper, et al. | 2001 | BMC Complement Altern Med 1: 10. |
| BACKGROUND: Ethnomedicines are used by hunters for themselves and their hunting dogs in Trinidad. Plants are used for snakebites, scorpion stings, for injuries and mange of dogs and to facilitate hunting success. RESULTS: Plants used include Piper hispidum, Pithecelobium unguis-cati, Bauhinia excisa, Bauhinia cumanensis, Cecropia peltata, Aframomum melegueta, Aristolochia rugosa, Aristolochia trilobata, Jatropha curcas, Jatropha gossypifolia, Nicotiana tabacum, Vernonia scorpioides, Petiveria alliacea, Renealmia alpinia, Justicia secunda, Phyllanthus urinaria,Phyllanthus niruri,Momordica charantia, Xiphidium caeruleum, Ottonia ovata, Lepianthes peltata, Capsicum frutescens, Costus scaber, Dendropanax arboreus, Siparuma guianensis, Syngonium podophyllum, Monstera dubia, Solanum species, Eclipta prostrata, Spiranthes acaulis, Croton gossypifolius, Barleria lupulina, Cola nitida, Acrocomia ierensis (tentative ID). CONCLUSION: Plant use is based on odour, and plant morphological characteristics and is embedded in a complex cultural context based on indigenous Amerindian beliefs. It is suggested that the medicinal plants exerted a physiological action on the hunter or his dog. Some of the plants mentioned contain chemicals that may explain the ethnomedicinal and ethnoveterinary use. For instance some of the plants influence the immune system or are effective against internal and external parasites. Plant baths may contribute to the health and well being of the hunting dogs. | ||
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| "Medicinal plants used for dogs in Trinidad and Tobago." | ||
| Lans, C., T. Harper, et al. | 2000 | Prev Vet Med 45(3-4): 201-20. |
| This paper documents ethnoveterinary medicines used to treat dogs in Trinidad and Tobago. In 1995, a 4-stage process was used to conduct the research and document the ethnoveterinary practices. Twenty-eight ethnoveterinary respondents were identified using the school-essay method, which is a modified rapid rural appraisal (RRA) technique. Semi-structured interviews were held with these respondents as well as with 30 veterinarians, 27 extension officers and 19 animal-health assistants and/or agricultural officers, and the seven key respondents that they identified. The final step involved hosting four participatory workshops with 55 of the respondents interviewed to discuss the ethnoveterinary data generated from the interviews and to determine dosages for some of the plants mentioned. Supplementary interviews were conducted in 1997 and 1998.Seeds of Carica papaya, and leaves of Cassia alata, Azadirachta indica, Gossypium spp., Cajanus cajan and Chenopodium ambrosiodes are used as anthelmintics. The anthelmintics Gossypium spp. and Chenopodium ambrosiodes are the most frequently used species. Crescentia cujete pulp, Musa spp. stem exudate, the inside of the pods of Bixa orellana, leaves of Cordia curassavica and Eclipta alba plant tops are used for skin diseases. Musa spp. stem exudate, seeds of Manilkara zapota, Pouteria sapota and Mammea americana and leaves of Cordia curassavica, Scoparia dulcis and Nicotiana tabacum are used to control ectoparasites. Dogs are groomed with the leaves of Cordia curassavica, Bambusa vulgaris and Scoparia dulcis. Psidium guajava buds and leaves and the bark of Anacardium occidentale are used for diarrhoea. Owners attempt to achieve milk let-down with a decoction of the leaves of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis. The plant uses parallel those practised in human folk medicine in other Caribbean countries and in other tropical countries. | ||
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| "Observations on ethnoveterinary medicines in Trinidad and Tobago." | ||
| Lans, C. and G. Brown | 1998 | Prev Vet Med 35(2): 125-42. |
| In 1995 research was conducted in Trinidad and Tobago with the aim of collecting knowledge on ethnoveterinary medicines in order to lay a foundation for further scientific study and validation. This paper describes only the ethnoveterinary practices used in the poultry sub-sector. A four stage process was used to conduct the research and document these ethnoveterinary practices. 28 ethnoveterinary respondents were identified using a modified Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) technique, the student essay method. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with these respondents as well as with 30 veterinarians, 27 extension officers and 19 animal health assistants/agricultural officers, and the 7 key respondents that they identified. 5 participatory workshops were then held with 55 of the respondents interviewed to discuss the data generated from the interviews and to determine dosages for some of the plants mentioned. 12 plant species were used to treat 4 categories of health problems common to poultry production. Aloe vera, Bryophyllum pinnatum, Citrus sp. and Momordica charantia were the main medicinal plants being used. | ||
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